CHAPTER 0NE

INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

Meaning and importance of system Analysis

A system consists of inputs, process, files and output and is designed to
fulfill some useful purpose. Systems vary in levels of complexity, ranging
from simple applications e.g. stock control to a complete set of systems,
known as management of information systems (M.I.S). A system that has
been converted to computer processing is referred to as a computer
application and an integrated set of such systems is known as computer
based management information systems (CBMIS)

Development of a CBMIS is a complex process and because of this, systems

have been developed bit by bit .The increase in complexity of systems has
led to higher development cost and this highlights the need for effective
system analysis.

System analysis also referred to as system development refers to the process,

which covers not only the study and examination of a system but also the
design and implementation of a new and a better one.

System analysis covers the review of the existing system leading to a design
specification for a new system. It is a detailed study of current practices,
files (storage), documents, working, methods etc from which can spring out
ideas for new systems. This is based on the notion that you can’t improve a
system until you understand it and what it is supposed to do.

Tasks involved in analysis include:

 Define and identify the objectives of the system
 Establish sources and types of information
 Decide on the method and collect data. Facts finding technique
include
 Interviewing
 Questionnaires
 Observation
 Documentation study

 Record, store and retrieve information

  Process, adapt and present information
 Analyze information i.e. interpreting the information and the
critical appraisal (judging value, quality, worthiness) of the
system.

Statements of requirements.
The outcome of system analysis should be a written report prepared jointly
by the users and analysts and submit the report to management for approval.

The report should include: -

 Criticism of the existing system
 The finding of the analysis and how the system can be improved
 The objectives of the proposed system
 A design specification, including main interfaces with other systems
 User responsibilities
 Constraints (forces against)
 An update of the cost benefits analysis and development plan.

The importance and purpose of the system analysis is to learn exactly how
the current system operates, dertimine and document what the system should
do and recommend alternative solution. This is achieved by fact-finding or
requirement determination. After fact gathering, analyze them carefully and
develop a plan to solve a problem in the current system.
 Identify loopholes/problems in a system
 Propose alternative replacement of the system for improvement
 Model the transition from the current state
 Enhance team work and understanding among the member

Roles of System Analyst

As consultant
Since the analyst has sound knowledge of the system developed or to be,
users consult the analyst and discuss the requirement specification.
Operatinal procedure. Before hardware is purchased or program written the
analyst is consulted to draw up the requirement of the system gather facts,
analyse them and specify design. He or she work in project team and assist
in forward planning and overall project control. Analysts bridge the gap
between the system users and the technical designers. (Since has the
knowledge of requirement specification) And incase of system failure, the
analyst is called in to develop a temporary or permanent solution.
An organization may call in an analyst to help them select the
microcomputer with appropriate software and to set up a system based on it.
Analyst may have to act as consultants between conflicting interests within
an organization who have different views of the way in which information
processing should be handled and an analyst is consulted in a situation
where an established data processing departments is considered moving into
new area. Top management call for a discussion of company strategy with
regard to information processing.
As Support Agent

Analyst acts support agent in that they work directly with the users and are
concerned with the need of this users. They work with the users to specify
the information requirement for the organization and with suppliers of
hardware and software to implement a system that meets those requirements
they support management and user in information strategy and user liason,
data and function analysis and in selection of equipments and software
packages. Additionally they will support in areas like user training, advice
and tailoring packages to meet specific needs of users.
Analysts support an organization on issues relating to its information
system e.g. managing and developing of a system. He or she draws up the
system requests that identifies the desired changes to improve the system,
analyze the request and determine and document what the system should do,
develop a plan to solve the problem in the current system, assist in
developing or recommend on packages to be purchased, put in place the
system (implement), completes operational documentations and procedures
and if the package was purchased, he or she makes the necessary changes to
meet the desired objectives perform the actual transition from the old system
to the new system, determine whether the new system operates properly and
of costs and benefits are within expectations and finally support in
maintenance and enhancement of the system.

As Architect
There is a sense in which the analyst is like an architect producing design to
the clients specification or for his approval, which can then be turned into
actual construction by the builder analyst creates a design in a specified
format which will be handed over to the programmers. The analyst produce
a clear picture in which the various hardware and software components can
be organized to form a complete system and a picture in which individual
system can communicate / work with one another either as independent
system or as a single integrated system.
 As Change Agent
After a system is developed tested and implemented, there is no need of
practical work of transferring the system design suite (groups) of programs
and databases into a working system the work that is done by analyst.
Analyst ensure system security measures are place, train staff on using the
new system ensure documents are up to date (documentations check),
decides on the method of change over (handover straight, parallel phased)
Manages the projects i.e. planning and scheduling of resources, staff
requirements and finally monitors the system to see if what is actually
happening and reviews the system periodically to give an overall picture of
the progress made by the system.

In theory system analysis involve writing request that identifies system and
describes the desired changes and improvements where a major request
might involve creation of the entire system or replacement of an existing
system (that can longer handle current requirement). Facts are gathered on
all function performed by the current system from which desired
improvement are determined. These facts are analyzed carefully and a plan
developed to solve problem in the current system. Finally a logical design is
developed the system must do form the documented requirements; this is
done whether the system is to be developed or purchased as a package.

In practice Analysts and or programmers write application programs tests

and documents. Also operational procedures and documents are written. If
the package was purchase off shelves the necessary changes are performed.
Here also convention of data to the new system files, user training and
performing actual transition from the old to the new system. Determination
of system’s operation is to the expectations is done and finally when the
system is up running, maintenance and enhanced are sometimes carried out
to solve problem identified. Also entire system can be replaced.
Based on the request made by the users of the system, analyst use this
request to analyze them in determine system requirement in what is called
requirement determination. This requirement is the used in designing a
logical picture of the system. This logical design is used by the analyst or the
analyst hands it to the programmer who then use it to write application
program, documents, operational procedures, makes the necessary
modification on the packages etc. From here then the analyst will step into
implement the system tests and corrects the errors that might arise.
Transition is performed which is followed by maintenance and
enhancement.
Note: Replacement and enhance of the system that involve system request
will mean going back to theoretical system analysis

2. SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Concept of a system
A system can be defined as assembly of procedures, processes, methods
routines or techniques united by some form of regulated interaction to form
an organized whole. Also a system can be defined as an interrelated set of
components with an identifiable boundaries working together for a common
purpose.

System characteristics
System boundary
A system has a boundary between of its components and which establishes
the limit of a system separating it from other systems. Components within
the same boundary work together for a common objective in the same
environment.
2. Environment
A system exists within the enviroment. Enviroment is anything external to a
system that interacts with the system i.e. the factors external to the system
that influence the system.(Internal environment are factors that influence
running of application programs.)
3.Input
Data to be processed into information must first be collected and
communicated from the external environment into the system by the input
function. The nature of the input is influenced by the nature of the system.
Input can also be described as data capture or data entry. Input is important
in that it enables the system to fulfill its objectives.
4.Output
This is the result of processed input; it is the final data processing function
of the system. Involves the communication of the desired information after
the external environment to the recipient’s user to another data processing
system or storage facilities.
5System Feedback and Control
System feedback is the information or the response that the system will give
to its users whenever a given function is performed on it or whenever the
system is halted. The control component includes the feedback concept that
furnishes descriptive information on the input processing, storage and output
function of the system. Negative feedback, when non standard output is
achieved is meant to regulate the system positive feedback encourages
further output the way they are the control system is usually stored within
the system as programs, to regulate and tie together all the system
components, if the system is computer based. Otherwise standard control
strategies are laid on standard manual to be followed as a guide to the
personnel within the system functional enviroment. Feedback can also be
viewed as a check within a system in order to ensure that the of the system
are achieved.
6. Sub-systems
Each sub-system is composed of sub-systems, which in turn are made up of
other sub-system. Each sub-system is defined through its boundary. Thus
every system is part of a larger system e.g. personnel, accounts, production
marketing etc are sub- systems of an organization’s larger systems. The
organization can be viewed as a sub-system of a particular industry.
7.System Function
System accepts input manipulates them and produces meaningful
information or results. Results or data may also be stored. System functions
involve, inputting, processing, outputting, storage, and system control.
8. Black box
This is a method used for testing system program when they are being
developed. This method focuses on the functional requirement of the s/w
.This method enables one to derive set of input conditions that may fully
exercise all functional requirements for a program. Errors are discovered e.g.
 Missing functions
 Interface errors
 Performance errors
 Initialization
 Termination error
 Error in data etc
Black box testing is often used at the stage of programming as a basis for
accepting or rejecting the program.
9. Inter- relatedness and inter-dependence of components
Components of a sub-system work together to achieve a given goal, are
related in a way, which enables them to perform their duties while inter-
dependence of components can be explained as function for one component
is somehow tied to the functions of others.
 10. Complex Whole
A system is composed of sub-systems of which this system can further be
sub divided into sub-systems. The various sub-systems interact and work
together to form a complex and organized whole.
11.Entropy
Due to changing technology and users need a system is prone to changes to
meet the needs of its users.
TYPES OF SYSTEMS
1. Deterministic System
This is system that functions according to some predetermined procedure
and hence thus future behavior can be predicted depending on the situation.
The current state o f affairs and the operational behaviors or properties are
precisely known.
2. Probabilistic system
This system operates on probability, that is chance events and hence their
future behaviors cannot be predicted definitely
3.Open system
Is a system which communicates with its environment e.g. all business
organization are open systems, for them to exist they must have the
capability to adapt to changing competition, changing market etc.
4. Closed system
Is a system, which does not interact with its environment. This system
correct s or controls itself and do not obtain modification from its
environment e.g. a computer program is a closed system.
5.Physical system
Consists of a set of element, which are coordinated and operate as a whole
entity to achieve a certain objective examples include computer system,
transport system etc.
6.Abstract system
Is an orderly arrangement of conceptual items or components? Abstract
system can further be divided into system arrangement of procedure (e.g.
law). Conceptual system refer to a symbolic system or theory or principles
(Einstein theory)
7.Cybernetic system /Adaptive system
These are systems that have to adapt to their environment for there survival.
These are self organizing (example include organization, human, plants
which have to react to the environment).
 8.Artificial system
Are those systems that are created rather than occur by nature e.g. computer
programs, organization?
9.Human machine system
These are systems that are designed to aid in accomplishing certain set goals
e.g. help in decision-making. The machine element e.g. hardware and
software are relatively closed and deterministic where as the human element
of the system are open and probabilistic hence this system can be controlled.
10. Information system (I.S)
Is a set of information person’s procedure other technological resources that
collects, transforms and disseminates information in the system?
11.Management information system

Describe the broad class of the information system that is designed to

provide information needed for effective decision making at several of
management. (Levels – operational, tactical and strategic)

3.INFORMATION SYSTEM
There are several different types or classes of information system these,
types are distinguished from each other on the basis of what the system does
or by the technology used to construct the system. As an analyst part of your
job will be to determined which kind of system will best address the
organizational problem or opportunity on which you are focusing on. In
addition different classes of systems may require different methodologies,
techniques and tools for development.
They are referred to as information systems because these system use
formalized procedure to provide management at all levels in all functions
with appropriate information based on data from both internal and external
sources, to enable one to make timely and effective decision for planning,
directing and controlling the activities for which he or she is responsible for.
Example of different types of information systems include:
1.Transaction processing system (T.P.S)
TPS automates the handling of data about business activities or transactions,
which can be thought of simple events in the life of an organization. Data
about each transaction are verified and accepted or rejected and validated
transactions are stored for later aggregation. Report may be produced
immediately to provide standard summarization of transaction transaction
may be moved from process in order to handle all aspects of the business
activity.
The analysis and design of a TPS means focusing on the firms current
procedures for processing transactions, whether those procedures are manual
or automated. The focus on current procedures implies a careful tracking of
data capture, flow, processing, and output. The goal of TPS development is
to improve transaction processing by speeding up, using fewer people,
improving efficiency and accuracy, integrating it with other organizational
information system, or providing information not previously available.
Examples for TPS include:

 Payroll
 Account receivable
 Inventory order
 Order entry etc

2.Management information system (M.I.S)

These are systems that takes the raw data available and converts them into
meaningful form of information that manages need to conduct their
responsible, Developing a MIS call for a good understanding of what kind of
information managers require and how they use information in their jobs
MIS require data from several TPS (e.g. customer data processing, raw
materials, purchasing, employee time keeping, inventory etc)
The components of MIS include:
 Hardware
 Software
 Databases
 Procedure (user instruction introduction on input preparation,
operating instruction)
 Operational personnel
In building a MIS an analyst must understand relationship between data so
that data can be accessed and summarized in a variety of ways and provide a
data model that support a variety of users.

3.Decision Support System (D.S.S)

Are system designed to help organizational decision makers make decision
instead of providing summaries of data, as with MIS, DSS provide an
alternative environment in which decision makers can quickly manipulate
data and model of business operations. DSS is comprised of a database
(which may be extracted from TPS or MIS), mathematical graphical model
of business processes and user interface that provide a way for the decision
maker to communicate with DSS. DSS may use both historical data as well
as judgment (what if scenario) about alternatives. DSS is a software resource
intended to support a certain scope of decision-making activities from
problem finding to choosing a course of action. When designing a DSS, the
analyst concentrates on three main aspects of the system i.e. databases, user
dialogue and model base. Mathematics rules defined in the system, which in
turn defines the interrelationship among different data for predicting future
data or for finding the best solution to decision problems.
DSS is characterized by less use structured and predictable situation,
activities start from problem finding to choosing the course of action and
involve groups of decision makers
4. Expert System (E.S) / Artificial Intelligence (A.I)
E.S attempts to codify and manipulate knowledge rather than information. If
– then- else rules or other knowledge representation forms that describes the
way an expert system would approach situation in a specific domain of
problem. Users communicate with an E.S through an interactive dialogue.
The E.S question (that expert would ask) and the end users supply the
answer. The answer is used then to determine which rules to apply and the
E.S provides a recommendation based on the rules.
When developing an E.S the focus is meagerly on acquiring the knowledge
of the expert in the particular problem domain. (Examples robots, computers
in hospital-dialogize and prescribes)
5.Customer Integrated System (C.I.S)
This is an extension of T.P.S that places technology in the hands of an
organization customer and allows them to process their own transaction
(examples of A.T.M –which provides ability to do ones banking activities
anywhere and anytime)

6.Executive information System (E.I.S)

Is a highly interactive MIS combined with DSS and E.S for helping manager
to identify and address problems and opportunities? This system enables
manager to view information from different angles, provide tools for
analyzing it and creating strategies for solving the problem and works with
all types of information (i.e. internal, external and subjective information)
features – drill docon capabilities, identify information resources and use
DSS and ES tools.
7.Inter-organizational System (I.O.S)
This system automates the flow of information between organization to
support the planning, design, development production and delivery of
products and services.E.g. Customers integrated system
8.Work – Group Support System (WSS)
This is a system designed specifically to improve the performance of groups
or teams by supporting the sharing and flow of information
Thus it involves collecting, conveying and communicating of information,
WSS is a group-ware and examples of groupware includes:
Lotus notes/ domino, MS Exchange, nor ell groupwise E-Systems Web
ware.

Levels of organization information

M.I.S is constructed to serves various levels and aspects of management

activities such that each level of the MIS has a different emphasis.
A- Strategies, policies planning and decision making
Provide information resources to support strategic planning and policy
making by higher levels of management

B-Tactical planning and decision-making

Provide resources to aid in tactical planning and decision making for
management control.

C-Operational planning decision making and control

Provide information resources that will support in the day – to –day
operation of an organization.

D- Transaction processing and inquiry response

Provide management with information for transaction process, inquires
from customers and employees not involved in organization
management.

Each level of information processing may make use of data provided

for from lower levels but new data may also be introduced. Examples
some of the information used to support management and decision
making is provided by data obtained from transaction processing while
some may be new data about activities external to the organization.M.I.S
users need to have some knowledge of computer, nature of information
and its use in various management function in order to be capable of
specifying the information requirement.
 System control is important in all data processing systems as it
furnishes information on the input processing, storage and output
function of the system. System control is usually stored within the system
as programs to regulate and tie together all the system components if the
system is computer based. Otherwise standard control strategies are laid
on standard manuals to be followed as a guide to the personnel within the
system functional environment

4. SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE I

SDLC is a common methodology for system development in many
organizations, featuring several phases that mark the progress of the
system analysis and design effort. SDLC is concerned with the
development for computers project e.g. an organization might be
interested in computerizing its sales department, which was run manualy.
If the organization has to satisfy its customers efficiently then a project or
a system must be developed according to the changes requirements.
Project development is normally an interactive process that involves
working to some details and backward to recheck i.e. development stages
not just paised through once and that is all. Even if the system is
successfully completed and is operational, the initial objective must
always be ascertained that they are being met.
System development is carried out by the analyst or a team of system
analysts. Since information requirement changes as an organization
grows or as it reacts to internal and external forces, to be successful an
organization need an information system that can handle a continuous
stream of new demands. The system development life cycle is a
structured approaches that organization use to develop an information
system that met there changing demands. Itconsits of phases as shown
below.

1.Problem Identification/ Definition

When an organization realizes that it cannot cope with certain business
need because the system concerned is failing, unsatisfactory or there is a
lag in modern development, then the selection of the project/ system is
intiated. The initiation of the project ins usually done by the
management. The steering committee made from the senior personnel in
the affected departments can formed to initiate the selection and
subsequently monitor the project development. The steering committee is
 to ensure that the project under question is completed successfully
covering all the areas of interest; the computerization is done
economically in the right sequence and on time.
Once the project is triggered on a preliminary survey is carried out to
find out if really there is need of change if yes then the objective or aims
of the proposed system should be obtained as terms of reference or initial
assignment brief that serves as a checklist during system investigation.
The outlined objective act as authoration or directive in form of request
from the management, gives scope and extend or limitation of the
proposed system, provides all useful information that will assist in
system development cycle and sets out the objectives for proposed
system
So the starting point of a project is system which request which might
propose enhancement for an existing system correction of problem or the
development of an entire new information system. This is done to
improve services to customers, better performance need for information
for making decision, need for stronger control and reduce costs.
System projects are triggered by both internal and external forces.
These forces include information system department, industrial
relationship, existing system, competition, top management directive,
government, and advancement in technology, user request.etc.

2. Project Initiations and Planning

The purpose of this phase is to identify the nature and scope of the prloblem.
This requires a preliminary investigation. Preliminary investigation is often
called a feasibility study i.e. the evaluation of a system to determine whether
it is worthy whole to proceed with the project. The aim of this study is to
provide clear statement of the purpose of the proposed system and it’s
practically. It is usually conducted quickly and in broad terms but must be
sufficiently detailed for management steering committee to draw up proper
conclusion. The study will include:
 Recommendation; whether to continue or broaden the project
 Option considered
 Economic justification (boost benefits analysis)
 Development plan and timetable for introduction
 Constraints expected

The recommendation in the feasibility study report are carefully evaluated

by the personnel involved in the system study i.e. management, user
department steering committee finance department, analysis e.t.c the
decision is to go ahead then then the contents of initial assignment brief are
updated that will be used in full study i.e. facts finding and recording.
Feasibility study screen out bad ideas such as a scheme, which is technically
possible but too expensive to implement. Feasibility study involves three
tests i.e.
 Operational
 Technical
 Economic feasibility

(a) Operational feasibility

An operational feasible system is one that will be used effectively after it has
been developed. If users have problem with the new system then it will not
produce the expected benefits. Several issues are considered here:
i. Does the management support the project
ii. Does users support the project
iii. Is the current system well linked
iv. Is the current system effectively used
v. Will performance decline or improve and will the overall gain out
way the changes in performance.
vi. Is the schedule for the development of the system achievable
vii. Are there any legal or ethical issues that need to be considered
viii. Will the new system result in work for reduction and if so what will
happen to the affected employees

(b) Technical feasibility

A system request is technically feasible if the organization has the resources
to develop or purchase, install and operate the system ie is the process of
assessing the development of organization’s ability to construct a proposed
system. When assessing technical feasibility, consider the following points.
i. Does the organization have the needed technical expertise and if not
can it be acquired
ii. Does the proposed system have enough capacity for future needs and
if not can it be expanded
iii. Will the system integrate with other organization’s information
system
iv. Will the hardware and software platform be reliable
v. Will the system be able to handle projected growth of the organization
in the future?
 (c) Economic feasibility
Is the process of assessing the system request in order to determine whether
the projected benefits of the proposed system out way the estimated costs
involved in developing or installing purchasing and operating it. Costs can
be one time or continuing and can occur at various times during project
development and use. To determine economic feasibility, analysts need to
estimate cots in each of the following areas:
i. People (user and I.S staff)
ii. Hardware and other equipments
iii. Software (in-house developed or purchased)
iv. Training
v. Licenses and fees
vi. Consulting expenses
vii. Maintenance costs
viii. Other required costs

Other feasibility studies that can be carried out include:

Political feasibility: -Process of evaluating key stakeholder within the
organization views the proposed system
Schedule feasibility: -The process of assessing the degree to which the
potential time frame and completion dates for all major activities with a
project meet original constraints for affecting changes.
A request not feasible should be identified as soon as possible and regretted,
example a request that does not fit in a company’s technical environment
should be rejected or a technically feasible request but may not be the best
solution or their exist a better alternative should be rejected. Requests that
are not currently feasible can be resubmitted later for example:
i. When the new hardware, software or expertise becomes available
ii. If there is a decrease in development costs If the value of benefits
increase in development costs
iii. If the value of benefits increase enough as to make feasible

An initially feasible project on the other hand can later be rejected for
several reasons:
i. Shift in economic conditions
ii. Loss of confidence in the project by management or users
iii. Higher costs than initially anticipated etc.

Feasibility analysis is ongoing process that must be performed on all phases

of SDLC.
 After presenting requests that are not feasible, establish priorities for the
remaining items, many factors influence the decision on selection and
scheduling of the system project. These factors include:
i. Will the proposed system or changes to the current system reduce
costs (where, when, how and how much)
ii. Will it increase revenue for the company- where, when, how and how
much
iii. Will the project result on more information or produce better results?
How and after how long?
iv. Will the system serve customers better?
v. Do an organization have the necessary resources?

During preliminary study we investigate the request to determine the true

nature and scope of the problem and recommend whether it is worthwhile to
continue with the project. It is not a comprehensive data gathering activity
and as such you are not expected to define the entire problem and you
should not attempt to propose all possible solution. Instead should meet the
following objectives
i. Understand the nature of the problem
ii. Identify the possible benefits of the project
iii. Define the objective of constraints for the proposed project
iv. Specify time and money estimates for the nextSDLC project phases
v. Present a report to management describing the problem and detailing
recommendation relative to the desirability of conducting a system
analysis of the current system

How to conduct a preliminary investigation

Step I
Obtain authorization from management to proceed this could be a memo to
all affected departments to let them know about your involvement and role
in the project.
Arrange meetings with key managers and personnel to explain the project
describe your responsibilities and invite questions, comments and
suggestions this initiates an important dialogue with the users that continue
throughout the SDLC.
Step II
Identify the necessary information and prepare a list of specific information
you want to obtain during the preliminary investigation
Step III
Perform finding to gather the necessary information. This is achieved by
i. Analyzing organization charts to help understand how the department
functions and identify individual you might interview
ii. Conduct inter view aimed at uncovering facts about the current
existing system

When performing interview, target managers and supervisors who have the
broad knowledge of the system and can give you an overview of the system
Review the current system documentation and confirm its accurately and
completeness.
Observe current system in operation. To see how workers carry out their
tasks get statistical information about the nature of the problem
Conduct a brief survey of the people who use the system

Step IV
Analyze the information gathered to identify alternative perform costs and
benefits analysis and recommended a course of action

Step V
Present your results and recommendation to management. The written report
should contain what you found out concerning the operation of the system,
the problems that you observed and your recommendation for future action.
The report includes:
i. Introduction
ii. Request summery
iii. Facts findings
iv. Recommendation
v. Expected benefits
vi. Appendices

Introduction
Over view of the report containing a brief description of the system, the
name of the person/group who performed the investigation and who initiated
the project.

System Request Summary

Summary of all the suggested requests made by management and users of
the system.

Findings
Result of your preliminary investigation including scope of the proposed
project and conclusion made

Recommendation
These are the suggestion you make for further action by the information
system department.

Expected benefits
An outline for both the tangible and intangible benefits of implementing the
recommendations.

Appendix
Necessary if you need to attach supporting information e.g. a list of
interviews conducted, documents used to extract information.

3.System Analysis and Analysis Review

The objective is to learn exactly how the system works to determine and
document fully how the system could work better to support organization
needs. It involves detailed study of the current practices, files, documents,
working methods etc from which can evolve ideas for the new systems. This
is based on the notion that you can’t improve a system until you understand
it and what it is supposed to do. The aims of analysis are:
i. Define and identify the objectives of the system
ii. Provide an assessment of the existing system
iii. Help evaluate all the possible alternative solutions
iv. To ensure that the weakness are identified and are removed from the
view system frame work.
v. To ensure that the new system cater for the procedures required to
generate information required from given sets of data in items input.
vi. To produce statement of requirements
vii. Establish sources and types of information
viii. Decide on the method and collection data e.g. interview,
questionnaires, observations, documentation study
ix. Record, store, retrieve information
x. Process and present information
xi. Analyze information (interpreting information)

Generally analysis phase consists of obtaining answers to questions who,

what, why, when, where, how should be used at this stage. To have a
successful analysis, analyst needs both critical thinking and interpersonal
skills. This is because critical thinking enables him to recognize the problem,
analyze and communicate the results while interpersonal skill help him to
work with people at all organizational levels.
Out of the this stage should be a written report prepared jointly by the users
and analysts then submitted for management approval the report will
include:
i. Criticisms of the existing system
ii. The finding of the analysis stage and how the system can be improved
iii. The objective of the proposed system
iv. A design specification
v. Constraints
vi. User responsibilities An update of the cost benefit analysis and
development plan and timetable
System analysis involves three aspects namely:
i. Requirement determination
ii. Requirement analysis
iii. Evaluating alternatives and strategies

1.Requiremnt Determination
System requirement are features that must be included in the system so as to
meet organization goals and be acceptable to users. During requirement
determination you identify the business related requirements for the new
system including outputs, input processes, timings and controls. You also
collect qualitative information about all the inputs, process and outputs.
System requirements is categorized into five aspects:
Outputs
Results of a given processes e.g. an inventory system must produce a daily
report of items showing the items numbers, quantity at hand, hand, quantity
issued, units value of al item etc.
Input
These are data needed for processing to give useful information example
marks are entered into an exam processing system to generate report from
that contains students course, adimission number, year of study, marks and
grade and remarks
Processing
Procedures and instruction that converts data into information which is
useful to the users e.g. payroll system updates employees salaries, benefits
and deductions and prints a report on each employee.
Timings
The duration of time to be taken or he specified time one expects can be
output from the system e.g. the transcript should be printed two weeks prior
to a new academic year.
Controls
This involves the regulation in which things/ duties are performed e.g. the
banks branch manager must approve payment of a cheque above Ksh 1
million.
Specific techniques are used in requirement determination namely
 Interviews
 Documentation review
 Observation
 Questionnaires
 Sampling
 Research

(a) Interviews

An interview is a planned meeting during which you obtain information

from another person. You need skill to plan, conduct and document an
interview, interviewing involves: -
i. Determine an people interview
ii. Establish the objective for the interview
iii. Conduct the interview
iv. Document the interview
v. Evaluate the interview

(b) Document review

This involve the study of different document concerning the current system,
this documents explains how the system operates or how procedures and
instruction are used to manage the system. Document reviewing is important
as it assists analysis to understand the system and what it’s supposed to do.
(c) Observation

You get to understand the current system better by observing it in operation.

After observation verify the information gathered during interviews and
confirm the accuracy of the system’s documention. If possible try to perform
some of duties of the users yourself
 (c) Questionnaires

When you wish to obtain information from a larger number of people,

questionnaire is used. Here you make sure that you design questionnaire to
collect the right data, questions, should be brief, clear and friendly, provide
clear instruction where there is need, limit the use of negative question
(retrenchment) and allow for general comment.
(e) Sampling

This is where you take samples i.e. parts of the whole current systems
information resources to make a conclusion concerning the function of the
system. Samples might include records, reports, data entry documents,
complints, charts, manuals etc. And when sampling applies sampling
techniques. (E.g. random)

(f) Research

This include review of journals, periodicals, books, manuals etc to obtain

background information of the system, organization’s trends and
development

2 Requirement Analysis
Here we use structured analysis tools to document the system requirements,
analyse them, and develop a model of the system that you will present to the
management.
We examine a system in terms of its inputs, outputs and processes; this is
the common way to describe the requirements for a new system. Because it
focuses on the flow of data and its transformation into useful information,
structured analysis is also called a process-centered technique or process
modeling and it use three main tools:
i. Data flow diagrams (DFD’s)
ii. Data dictionary
iii. Process descriptions

The end product of structured analysis is a logical model that shows the
system must do.
i. Data Flow Diagrams (D.F.D ‘s)
A DFD shows how data moves an information system. They represent a
logical. Model that shows what the system does and no how it does and not
how it does it. They do not show programs logic or processing steps, they
are drawn using four basic symbols in two versions: Siane and Yourdon
versions.

(a) Process Symbol

A process receives input data and produces output that has different contents
or form or both.ie process represents transformation of data. The symbol for
the process is a circle the process name identifies the function it performs
e.g.

Details of a process are not shown in the DFD ‘s but are documented in a
process description

(b) Data Flow

A data flow is a path data to move from one part of information system to
another. It represents one or more pieces of data the DFD do not show the
structured and detailed contents of a data flow. They are defined in the data
dictionary. (Software tools used to manage and control access to the
information store)
Data flow name should identify the data it represents.
Note: Because a process charges data from one form into another, at least
one data flow must enter and one data flow must exit from each process
symbol. A process can connect to any other symbol including another
process symbol. A data flow must have a process symbol on at least one end.

Examples of correct combination of data flow and process symbols

Data store
Is used in DFD’s to represents a situation when a system must retain data
because one or more process need to use a stored data at later time the
detailed contents of a data store are not shown in DFD but defined in a data
dictionary. The name of the data store identifies the data it contains.
A data store must be connected to a process by a data flow, have at least one
incoming and one out going data flow

Avoids modeling data from one file to another, file should not be the
terminal point or source of data.

(c) External Entity

Is a person, place, Object, event organizations or concepts outside the
organization that provides data or information to he organization’s systems
or receives information from the systems. An external entity can either be a
source or sink. Source is an external entity that supplies data to the system
and sink is an external entity that receives data from the system.

Example:
Avoid modeling data flowing from one external entity to another ,
information moving directly from an external entity to a data store or from a
data store to an external entity.

Rules for drawing data flow diagrams

Process:
a) No process can have only output
b) No process can have only input
c) Process has a verb phrase label

Data store:
a) Data cannot move directly from data store to another data store. Data
must be moved by a process
b) Data cannot move from an outside source to a data store. Data must be
moved by process that receives data from the source and places the
data into the data store
c) Data cannot move directly to an outside sink from a data store. Data
must be moved by a process
d) A data store has a noun phrase label

Source/sink:
a) Data cannot move directly from a source to a sink, it must be moved
by a process of the data are of any concern to the system
b) A source/sink has a noun phrase

Data flow:
a) Data flow has only one direction of flow between symbols. It may
flow in both direction between a process and data store to show
 actions this is usually indicated by two separate arrows since these
action happens times.
b) More than one data flow from a common location indicates that
different copies of the same data going to different location i.e. a fork
in data flow
c) A in a data flow means that exactly the same data comes from any
of two or more different process, data store or sources/sink to a
common location.
d) A data flow cannot go directly back to the same process it leaves
e) A data flow to a data store means store or an update
f) A data flow from data store means retrieve or use
g) A data flow has a noun phrase label

Requirement specifications
To complete the system analysis phase, you must prepare a system
requirement document and make a presentation to the management.
Requirement specification is a structured document which sets out the
system services in more detailed way it should be precise so that it may act
as a contract between systems procure and the developer. Requirement
specification should satisfy the following requirements:

i. Should specify external behavior of the system

ii. Should specify constraints on the implementation i.e. stating the
limitations
iii. It should be easy to change with time
iv. Should serve as a reference tool for system maintenance
v. Should have a fore thought about the life cycle of the system
vi. It should charaterise acceptable Reponses to un-desired events
System’s requirement specification contains the requirements for the view
system, describe the alternatives and makes a recommendation to
management. This document shall be used for measuring the performance
accuracy and completeness of the finished system before entering the system
design phase. It identifies what must be delivered by the system developers
to the users.
i. Are there any constraints or draw backs in the system?
ii. What equipment can be transferred from the existing system to the
new system?
iii. Is the system flexible to adopt to enhance processing requirement?
Answer to such questions are important because they help to give a full
study report which bridges up the analysis and design stages. Also when the
system will be operational, they will form the basis of periodic review.

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE II

System Design
In the previous phase i.e. system analysis you developed a logical model of a
system that will satisfy user needs and meet business requirements. Based on
this logical model, you then considered various development issues prepared
a system requirement document and presented to management for approval.
In phase, you aim at doing a physical design of the system with focus on
satisfying the criteria specified in system analysis i.e.:
(i) Top down design (structure design)

This method focuses on the major function of the system. It breaks down the
system into modules.
(ii) Bottom-up design
This method focuses on data particularly the output. This approaches used to
determine what output is needed and more up to the process needed.

Analysis criteria used in design phase include:

(a) Purpose
The purpose must be to meet the demands of the requirement specification
i.e. the objective that were agreed at the beginning of the project
(b) Economical
The cost and benefits of the new system should be compared with those of
the existing system.
(c) Work flow
The best workflows must be attained. This includes methods of transmitting
data to and from the computer the number of stages in processing file
organization the requirement of internal check and the link with clerical
procedures.
(d) Flexibility
The system being designed should easily be adapted to changes to suit new
condition. The following points are considered when focusing on system
flexibility:
 I. Integration of procedures

Must important in a centralized computer processing system to make it

possible for the integration of many procedures carried out independently
i i. Modularity of hardware
This is important when choosing the hardware to ensure that it is capable of
being expanded (units added) when need arises
iii. Peak periods/ treatment of exception
The system should be designed in such a way that it is able to cope with
peak periods processing i.e. using other additional facilities known as third
party facilities to cope for the unusual high loads. Similarly exceptional
could be designed into the system.
iv. Exception principle

The principle of exception should be incorporated in the design of the new

system, so that only deviation from the plan are reported for management’s
attentions. Basing on this principle an analyst must ensure that only
necessary output are produced e.g. in a stock control system, warning would
be given of slow moving stocks.
v. Reliability
The reliability of all hardware and software must be considered. The analyst
must ensure that facilities required for the new system have proven record of
reliability. Maintenance required the expected life of the hardware and
backup facilities must be considered.
Vi Forms
Data should be presented to the computer in a macline sensible form.
Analyst must consider all the method of input. If output from one part of
the system is the input to another, then ideal medium for the subsequent
input should be used. When output is required in a humanly legible form,
choice of method of presentation is important e.g. visual display, printed
copy, graphical etc. The needs of the person receiving the output
determines which form is appropriate.
Vii. Existing System
Considerable must be given to the existing staff, procedure, equipment,
and forms etc. in the design of a new system.
Viii. Continuous Control
There is need to carry out a continuous internal check i.e.
Perform audit trials. This involves using documentary records of various
stages in processing to check that procedure have been carried out
correctly. Control should be incorporated in the system.
 Xi.Time

Analysts should design the system to satisfy time requirements. Speed of

equipments, modes of access and processing methods must be
considered. The length of the processing cycle is most important and the
presentation of source data to the computer and the production of outputs
document will be subject to strict time constraints.
X.Specialization/simplification/standardization
Also referred to as three S’s, in system development the analyst should
ensure that the three S’s are being practiced
Throughout, i.e. is the work capable of being carried out by the
computers? Can the complex procedures be simplified and are the
standard practices observed.
Xi. Statistical methods
Analyst should use statistical data about the system performance over a
number of years to determine if the anticipated performance of the
proposed system will meet the set goals and it has room for
improvement.
Xi.Methods of procedures
Analyst must be familiar with the latest methods and able to use them
properly because most methods used in system developments eventually
get out dated i.e.
 Make sure you understand the problem
 Fully identify the requirement and should be agreed on by the
client and management
 Clearly document all work as you do it
 Have all work checked to an agreed standards of quality at every
stage.
 Be systematic
 B creative but make sure it works
 Allow for future changes
 Make sure that all users find the system usable
 Break the problem down into manageable tasks and carry them out
in a planned and methodical way
 Make sure that the final system is all there in full working order
and does what it’s supposed to do before you say it’s ready.

Xii. Conceptual models

Use models that identify the main components of system and show how they
relate to each other.
Xiii. Data
Analyst having a wide knowledge of what the system does and system
requirements he is in position to know what the input data should be and
how they will be input and used in the system.
Xiv. Principle of procedure
Analyst after studying the current system and clearly understanding it should
use all the above criteria in criticizing the current system in order to identify
the strengths and weakness of the system.
There are many problems that occur in a system design, these problems
are too large to be solved all at once. The answer is to try to solve such
problems in stages and two methods are used: -
(i) Bottom-up approach

Solving part of the problem that is under and then other parts of the problem
as they become clear. You solve them in parts until the whole problem is
solved i.e. the whole situation is built up by joining together the completed
parts. But there is one severe danger inherent in the bottom up approach; the
various parts may not fit together properly.
(ii) Top-down approach (structure design)

Starts with the general concept of what is required, break the whole into
components parts and then tackling the component parts in the same manner.
The inter- relationship between components is decided upon before the
components are created so that the final integration of the parts into the
whole should be more straightforward.
Designing of a system usually follow a sequence of three steps.
 The system is described at a logical level in terms of what it will do in
the context of particular design i.e. design elements are put together in
away that they can meet the requirements in general terms
 The logical model is refined in a series of steps in which successive
details are added.
 Finally the physical details are added to the logical details so that the
design shows not only what the system should do but also how it
should do it

Design elements
The design of a new system can be conveniently divided into the
following elements:
  User interfaces design
 Output design
 Input design
 Files or database components design
 Procedures and programs/ process design

User interface design

Most modern system has interactive users performing tasks on the system
using PC’s, workstation or terminals. Various screens have to be designed
together with their associated processing operations. The methods of deign
vary according to the nature of the application and the type of devices used.

Output design
Focus on the various forms of system output that support business objective
and satisfy user requirements. The logical design of an information system
defines the logical functions and features of the system and the relationship
among the components. It includes the output, input and process to be
performed by the system without regards to how the task will be performed
physically. It only defines the essentials requirements of a system .In
contrast the physical design of information system is a plan for the actual
implementation of the system. It is built on the system logical design and it
is concerned with how the system will meet its requirements.
The best place to start design is the output requirements best defines a
system, ie what the system must produce to meet business and users needs.
The purpose of a system is to provide users with information to perform
their jobs. Users only see the finished product and will judge the system
based on how well the output helps them to carry their responsibilities.
Checklist for output design
Ask yourself
 What is the purpose of the output?
 Who wants this information, why and how will it be used?
 What specific information is required?
 What format should be used?
 When will the information be provided?
 How often must information be updated?
 Do users require simultaneous access of screen forms?
 Security and confidentiality issues.
The type of output and the technology needed is decided on basis of users
requirements. Common output devices and methods include, printers screen,
audio, e-mails, webpage, and special output to tapes or disks.
When designing output, ensure that output integrity is observed i.e. the
output should be correct and complete.
After the output design the users should approve it and all those who are
involved e.g. the management and other staff within the organization who
are affected by the change.

Files and database components design

Once the output is designed the file that shall hold the data necessary for the
provision for the output is then designed. These element are very much
linked to input and output. Input is processed against the stored data to
produce the necessary output. Considerations involved in designing files are:
-
 Storage media
 Method of file organization and access
 File security
 Record table layouts

Input design
The input to the system is necessary because the content of the input are
used to maintain the files. Input considerations are greatly influenced by the
needs output e.g. the necessity for quick response from the system would
determine the need fir an on line type of input.
There are many input techniques and devices available. However the quality
of a system output is only as good as the quality of input (GIGO concept-
Garbage In Garbage Out). The main objective of input design is to develop a
user-friendly interface and input process that ensure the quality and
accurately and timeliness of input.
Example of common input devises include keyboard, mouse, internet,
workstation, telephone, graphics input devices voice input device scanner,
digital camera etc.
Input design involves developing the method used for data entry and data
input.
Data capture: - Process of identification and recording source data.
Data entry: - Process of converting source data into a computer readable
form.
Data input: - Process by which the computer readable source data actually
Enters the information system.
During input design you must decide whether the data to use is a batch input
or online input: -Batch input refers to where data entry is performed over a
period of time. The resulting collection (batch) of source data is input into
the system all at one time.
Online input: - i.e. direct data entry using direct input devices.
A good design require realistic volume estimates to reduce input volume.
 Input necessary data only
 Don’t input data that can be retrieved from system files
 Use codes to reduce input errors.
 Prevent errors by identifying and correcting them before imputing
data into the system

The following checks are performed during input design: -

Sequence checks: - used when the data must be in some predetermined
sequence
Existence checks: - used for data items that are input.
Data checks: - Tests to ensure a data item fits to the required data type or
class.
Range checks: - tests data to verify if they fall within a given range.
Reasonable checks: - identify values that are questionable.
Validity checks: - used for data items that must have certain values.

Process design
The designer is to consider how the input data and those maintained in the
files can be manipulated into desired information. This involves the
identification of the various processing tasks required to be carried out by
the system and how computer instructions can be formulated to solve the
tasks conveniently. Processing design is importance because it unify the
whole process, that link every together to produce the desired output.
The goal of system design is to build a system that is effective, reliable and
maintanable. To be effective the system must satisfy the defined
requirements cope with the constraints anticipated and must be accepted by
the users.
A system is reliable if it adequately handles errors such as input errors,
hardware failure, human mistakes etc plan for errors detection as early as
possible, allow for their correction and prevent them from damaging the
system.
A system is maintainable if it is well designed, flexible and developed with
future modification in mind. Modifications at some point becomes necessary
to correct problems, adapt to changing user requirement or business goals
To design an effective reliable and maintainable system you considered the
following.
User considerations: - consider points where users interact with the system
anticipated for system and organization’s needs.
Data considerations: - Automate data entry whenever possible, enter data
only once, know when and where to it is input and correct it where necessary
before inputting the data.
Processing considerations: - When designing procedures and instructions
break them in modules i.e. uses modular design approach and come up with
independent modules that perform a simple function.
In design phase it is good to use codes where possible to represent items of
data. This codes can then be used to input or output data and the codes used
or the coding method must be acceptable to user to enable them work
comfortably. Examples includes:
Sequence code: - numbers /letters assigned in a specific order
Block code: - use block of numbers for different classifications (e.g. SCS
312 indicates a course taught in 3rd year)
Classification code: - distinguish one group of items from another.
Alphabets codes: -abbreviation e.g. Nairobi
Mnemonics codes: - use a combination of letter and symbols hat are easy to
remember (e.g. JKIA)
Significant digit codes: - distinguishes items by using a set of sub groups of
digits e.g.

Self-checking code: - use a check digit to verify the validity of a numeric

code.
Action code: - indicate what action is to be taken with associated item
Cipher code: use a keyword to encode a number
Design review
After system design the analyst produces descriptive/ narrative documents
about his design strategies i.e. described as system specification or
definition. This system specification serves as: -
 A reference materials during subsequent stages of system
development testing and implementation and during maintenance of
the operational system
 A basis for making the new system work and as a guide to the
operation of the new system’s programs
 The constraint binding the user and the analyst or the organization’s
information system department
The system specification contest should be reviewed and approved by all the
personnel involved in the system design e.g. steering committee,
management, auditors and financial control. The development for the new
system commences once the specification is accepted.
The system specification has the following information.
 An introduction for the background detailing on the objective set in
the initial assignment brief and how to meet them
 The proposed system description system document
 Cost benefit appraisal for the versus the new system as was
established during feasibility study.
 Description of the input to be generated by the system
 The files to be used detailing on organization medium of storage,
record structure etc.
 Input necessary to maintain the files detailing, medium, how to
convert the input data into machine sensible form content etc
 The control to be incorporated into the system
 The equipment necessary for the new system and the implementation
strategies e.g. changeover method user training etc.
Changing and Testing
After design specifications are accepted, the analyst prepare s program
specification for all the program that are to be development in connection to
the system i.e. program to solve the system tasks. Programmers work closely
with system analyst to develop these programs. Programmers usually will
use modelers programming approach to develop individual program units
that eventually are integrated into one whole system. This approach is
advantageous because it eases the program maintenance .The choice
programming languages can be influenced by: -
 The availability of the translator
 Fimiliarity with the language i.e. cost
  Nature of the system (e.g. batch, online, raeltion)
 Easy to learn and use
During coding the program should be documented i.e. should have
comments in them for eases maintenance of programs?
During program design they should be tested using data extracted from the
real problem environment to find out whether they are performing the
intended tasks correctly. Each module should be tested for it’s correction
ness and then be tested in relation to each other to find out whether they
work correctly as a suite of programs.
NOTE: Only logical and semantic errors are correcting using test data by the
proogramme. Syntax grammatical errors are detected by the language
translator and reported to the programmer who corrects them.
It is at this stage that objective review is important, because it is the time
when technical difficulties are encountered. Thus these call the need for
system testing.
A good program design must have the following features:
Reliability: - the program should be depended upon always to do what it is
supposed to do.
Maintainability: - the program should be easy to change or modify when the
need arises.
Portability: - the program should be transferable to a different computer with
a minimum of modification.
Readability: - the program should be easy for a programmer to read and
understand
Performance: - the program should cause the tasks to be done quickly and
efficiently
Storage saving: - the program should not be unnecessary long.
In the process of coding i.e. producing the necessary instructions making up
a program the following stages are followed: -
 Understand the problem
 Plan the method of solution.
 Developing the methods using suitable aids eg Pseudocode
(statements)
 Types the instruction into the computer using a programming
language.
 Test the program (unit, integration, system and user acceptance
testing)
 Document all the work involved in producing the program.
System testing
There is need to ensure both the individual programs have been written
correctly and that the system as a whole work. Errors might slip there a
tested system, we test the system to: -
 Detect any further error/bug
 Establish whether the programs work interactively as a suite of
programs
 Find out whether the clerical and computer produces interface.
