Introducing Psychology –Chapter 1

Dr. Ghada Shahrour

 What is Psychology?
The word “psychology” comes from the Greek words

“psyche,” meaning life, and “logos,” meaning explanation

Broadly speaking, psychology as a science is defined as the

scientific study of mind and behavior
Defining Psychology
Therefore, psychology as a science deals systemically with human
behavior, motives, feelings, emotions, thoughts, and actions of
human beings

Like other sciences, psychology aims at understanding, explaining,

predicting, and thus modifying human behavior. Psychologists
reach these aims objectively using the scientific method. The
scientific method is the process of observing, asking questions,
and seeking answers through tests and experiments.
Psychology
Psychologists use the scientific method to conduct
their research. The scientific method is a standardized way
of making observations, forming and testing hypothesis,
gathering data, and interpreting results.

Example:
All tall men are intelligent

All green-eyed people are happy

The Scientific Method
 Although scientific research is an important method of
studying human behavior, not all questions can be answered
using scientific approaches.

 Statements that cannot be objectively measured or objectively

determined to be true or false are not within the domain of
scientific inquiry.
 Values Vs. Facts
 Values are personal statements such as “Abortion should not
be permitted in this country,”

 Facts are objective statements determined to be accurate

through empirical study.

 E.g.: Research demonstrates that individuals who are exposed

to highly stressful situations over long periods of time develop
more health problems than those who are not.

 Values Vs. Facts
 Research can sometimes provide facts that can help people
develop their values.

 Values also frequently come into play in determining what

research is appropriate or important to conduct.

The evolution of Psychology
The earliest psychologists that we know about are the
Greek philosophers Plato (428-347 BC) and Aristotle
(384-322 BC).

These philosophers asked many of the same questions that

today’s psychologists ask; for instance, they questioned
the distinction between nature and nurture and the
existence of free will.
Early Psychologists
Plato argued on the nature side, believing that certain kinds
of knowledge are innate or inborn, whereas Aristotle was
more on the nurture side, believing that each child is born
as an “empty slate” and that knowledge is primarily
acquired through learning and experience
Early Psychologists
French philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650) also
considered the issue of free will, arguing in its favor and
believing that the mind controls the body through the
pineal gland in the brain (an idea that made some sense at
the time but was later proved incorrect).
A scientist as well as a philosopher, Descartes dissected
animals and was among the first to understand that the
nerves controlled the muscles. He also addressed the
relationship between mind (the mental aspects of life) and
body (the physical aspects of life).
Descartes believed in the principle of dualism: that the mind
is fundamentally different from the mechanical body.
Early Psychologist
The fundamental problem that these philosophers faced
was that they had few methods for testing their claims.
Most philosophers didn’t conduct any research on these
questions, in part because they didn’t yet know how to
do it, and in part because they weren’t sure it was even
possible to objectively study human experience.
Structuralism
German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt(1832-1920) began the field
known as structuralism, a school of psychology whose goal
was to identify the basic elements or structures of
psychological experience

Structuralists used the method of introspection

to attempt to create a map of the elements of consciousness

Introspection involves asking research participants to describe

exactly what they experience as they work on mental tasks,
such as viewing colors, reading a page in a book, or performing
a math problem.
Structuralism
An important aspect of the structuralist approach was that
it was rigorous and scientific. The research marked the
beginning of psychology as a science, because it
demonstrated that mental events could be quantified.

Example: the experiment of recognizing the sound and

naming it

- But the structuralists also discovered the limitations of

introspection. Even highly trained research participants
were often unable to report on their subjective
experiences..
Functionalism
Pioneered by the American psychologist William James
(1842-1910).

William James and the other members of the school of

functionalism aimed to understand why animals and
humans have developed the particular psychological
aspects that they currently possess. For James, one’s
thinking was relevant only to one’s behavior.
Functionalism
Functionalists were influenced by Charles Darwin’s (1809-
1882) theory of natural selection, which proposed that
the physical characteristics of animals and humans evolved
because they were useful, or functional. The functionalists
believed that Darwin’s theory applied to psychological
characteristics too. Just as some animals have developed
strong muscles to allow them to run fast, the human
brain, so functionalists thought, must have adapted to
serve a particular function in human experience.
Functionalism
The work of the functionalists has developed into the field
of evolutionary psychology, a branch of psychology that
applies the Darwinian theory of natural selection to
human and animal behavior.
Evolutionary psychology accepts the functionalists’ basic
assumption, namely that many human psychological
systems, including memory, emotion, and personality,
serve key adaptive functions.
Psychodynamic Psychology
- Pioneered by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and his followers

- It is an approach to understanding human behavior that focuses on the role of -

unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories.

Freud developed his theories about behavior through extensive analysis of the patients that he
treated in his private clinical practice. Freud believed that many of the problems that his
patients experienced, including anxiety, depression, and sexual dysfunction, were the result
of the effects of painful childhood experiences that they could no longer remember.

Freud developed the psychoanalysis therapy which depends on

Dream analysis and talk therapy to get to the unconscious experience
And thus resolve patient’s psychological problems.
Psychodynamic Psychology
Psychodynamic therapy emerged from the psychoanalysis
therapy. It share with psychoanalysis common themes
including:
1- the importance of unconscious in human behavior
2- the idea that early childhood experiences are critical, and
the concept of therapy as a way of improving human lives
Behaviorism
- Pioneered by Ivan Pavlov and Skinner
-Behaviorism is a school of psychology that is based on the
premise that it is not possible to objectively study the
mind, and therefore that psychologists should limit their
attention to the study of behavior itself.
- behaviorists believe that it is possible to develop laws of
learning that can explain all behaviors.

Behavior has two components:

A stimulus response
Behaviorism
- Study of how organisms learn or change behavior based
upon responses to events in their environment.

- It held the view that only overt behavior can be studied

scientifically. They advocated the use of strict
experimental procedure in psychology.
Behaviorism
Strict behaviorists believed that all behaviours are shaped 
by the environment. “Give me a dozen healthy infants,
well-formed,….. regardless of his talents, penchants,
tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his
ancestors”…….John Watson.
- Ivan Pavlov – Classical conditioning experiment with 
dog’s salivation.
- B.F. Skinner – Introduced concept reinforcement to 
show how behaviors repeat.
- John B. Watson –Behavior occurs due to stimuli in 
environment.
The Cognitive Approach
Cognitive psychology is a field of psychology that studies mental
processes, including perception, thinking, memory, and
judgment.

Cognitive psychologists maintain that when we take into -

consideration how stimuli are evaluated and interpreted, we
understand behavior more deeply.

Cognitive psychology remains enormously influential today, and it

has guided research in such varied fields as language, problem
solving, memory, intelligence, education, human development,
social psychology, and psychotherapy.

Jean Piaget – leader in the cognitive field of psychology.

 Humanistic Psychology

Humanistic Psychology – Belief that each person has 

freedom in directing his/her future an achieving personal
growth.
Humans are not controlled by environment, but by their 
own self concept. Humans are not being controlled by
unconscious or environmental forces, we have free will,
goals, aspirations and other positive motives which should
be studied. It is influenced by Carl Rogers.
Abraham Maslow – Humanist whose views differed from 
behaviorists and psychoanalysts.
Biological Psychology
Explores the relationship between physiological processes 
and human behavior, focusing on how the brain, nervous
system, and hormones influence thoughts, emotions, and
actions.
- This field examines how neural activity, 
neurotransmitters, and hormonal fluctuations shape
behaviors, moods, and cognitive functions

By studying brain structures, genetics, and biochemical 

interactions, biological psychology provides insights into
mental health conditions, learning processes, and
behavioral responses
Biological Psychology
Understanding these biological mechanisms helps explain how 
physical and chemical changes in the body affect perception,
decision-making, and overall psychological well-being.

Donald Hebb (1904–1985) – Proposed the Hebbian theory, 

explaining how neurons form connections based on
experience, which laid the groundwork for understanding
learning and memory.

Roger Sperry (1913–1994) – Conducted split-brain 

research, proving that the left and right hemispheres of the
brain have specialized functions.
Social-Cultural Psychology
The field of social-cultural psychology is the study of how
the social situations and the cultures in which people find
themselves influence thinking and behavior.

Social-cultural psychologists are particularly concerned with

how people perceive themselves and others, and how
people influence each other’s behavior
Social-Cultural Psychology
Concepts related to social-cultural psychology include:

- conformity: the frequently of changing our beliefs and -

behaviors to be similar to those of the people we care about.
- Social norms: the ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving that are
shared by group members and perceived by them as
appropriate. Norms include customs, traditions, standards, and
rules, as well as the general values of the group.
- culture: the common set of social norms, including religious
and family values and other moral beliefs, shared by the people
who live in a geographical region
 BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

These branches are broadly divided into two 

categories;
Basic Branches: This provides the theoretical
framework of the subject. These branches deals with
formulation of principles, theories and suggest different
methods for the assessment of behaviour.

The pure branches also suggest certain techniques for 

the modification of problematic behaviour.
 BRANCHES of Psychology
Cognitive psychology: It explains various psychological 
processes such as sensations, perception, emotions, learning,
intelligence, personality etc.

Developmental psychology: It explains the growth and 

development of various processes in relation to behaviour. It
explains human life through the stages of conception to old
age.
 BRANCHES (Cont’d)
Physiological psychology: This branch describes the biological 
basis of behavior.

Social psychology: It deals with interrelationships of people 

among themselves, likes and dislikes of people, attitudes and
interests.
Experimental Psychology – studies sensation, behavior, 
perception, learning, motivation, and emotion in controlled
laboratory conditions.

Health Psychology – Studies how psychological factors 

influence health and illness.

Example: Investigating how stress contributes to heart disease.

 BRANCHES (Cont’d)

Applied branches deals with the application of

psychological principles and techniques for approaching the
problems in different fields of life.
Clinical Psychologist- Diagnoses and treats people with 
emotional disturbances (about ½ of all psychologists are
clinical).
Educational Psychologist – Study topics related to 
educating children.
 BRANCHES (Cont’d)

Community Psychologist – studies the community as 

a context for the individuals within it,and the relationships
of the individual to communities and society.

Industrial/Organizational Psychologist – Studies 

concepts to make the workplace more satisfying for
employees and managers.
 BRANCHES (End)

Forensic Psychologist – Studies, diagnoses, and evaluates 

testimony regarding the law and criminal behavior (Also
includes effects of court on children, jury selection,
counseling victims)

Sports Psychology- Studies athletics and athletic 

performance. Often use visualization to help athletes
mentally rehearse successful steps in completing tasks while
reducing negative thoughts of failure.