Chapter 1: Introduction

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Chapter 1: Introduction
What Operating Systems Do

Computer-System Organization

Computer-System Architecture

Operating-System Structure

Operating-System Operations

Process Management

Memory Management

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 Objectives

To describe the basic organization of computer systems

To provide a grand tour of the major components of

operating systems

To give an overview of the many types of computing

environments

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 What is an Operating System?

A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a

computer and the computer hardware
Operating system goals:
Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier
Make the computer system convenient to use
Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner

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 Computer System Structure

Computer system can be divided into four components:

Hardware – provides basic computing resources
 CPU, memory, I/O devices
Operating system
 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the
users
 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
Users
 People, machines, other computers

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 Four Components of a Computer System

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 What Operating Systems Do

Users want convenience, ease of use and good performance

Don’t care about resource utilization
But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer must
keep all users happy
Users of dedicated systems such as workstations have
dedicated resources but frequently use shared resources from
servers
Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for usability
and battery life
Some computers have little or no user interface, such as
embedded computers in devices and automobiles

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 Operating System Definition

OS is a resource allocator
Manages all resources
Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and
fair resource use
OS is a control program
Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and
improper use of the computer

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 Operating System Definition (Cont.)

No universally accepted definition

“Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating
system” is a good approximation
But varies wildly
“The one program running at all times on the computer” is
the kernel.
Everything else is either
a system program (ships with the operating system) , or
an application program.

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 Computer Startup

Bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known
as firmware
Initializes all aspects of system
Loads operating system kernel and starts execution

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 Computer System Organization

Computer-system operation
One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common
bus providing access to shared memory
Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for
memory cycles

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 Computer-System Operation

I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type
Each device controller has a local buffer
CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its
operation by causing an interrupt

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 Common Functions of Interrupts

Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine

generally, through the interrupt vector, which contains the
addresses of all the service routines
Interrupt architecture must save the address of the
interrupted instruction
A trap or exception is a software-generated interrupt
caused either by an error or a user request
An operating system is interrupt driven

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 Interrupt Handling

The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by

storing registers and the program counter
Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
polling
vectored interrupt system
Separate segments of code determine what action should
be taken for each type of interrupt

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 Interrupt Timeline

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 Storage Definitions and Notation Review
The basic unit of computer storage is the bit. A bit can contain one of two
values, 0 and 1. All other storage in a computer is based on collections of bits.
Given enough bits, it is amazing how many things a computer can represent:
numbers, letters, images, movies, sounds, documents, and programs, to name
a few. A byte is 8 bits, and on most computers it is the smallest convenient
chunk of storage. For example, most computers don’t have an instruction to
move a bit but do have one to move a byte. A less common term is word,
which is a given computer architecture’s native unit of data. A word is made up
of one or more bytes. For example, a computer that has 64-bit registers and 64-
bit memory addressing typically has 64-bit (8-byte) words. A computer executes
many operations in its native word size rather than a byte at a time.
Computer storage, along with most computer throughput, is generally measured
and manipulated in bytes and collections of bytes.
A kilobyte, or KB, is 1,024 bytes
a megabyte, or MB, is 1,0242 bytes
a gigabyte, or GB, is 1,0243 bytes
a terabyte, or TB, is 1,0244 bytes
a petabyte, or PB, is 1,0245 bytes

Computer manufacturers often round off these numbers and say that a
megabyte is 1 million bytes and a gigabyte is 1 billion bytes. Networking
measurements are an exception to this general rule; they are given in bits
(because networks move data a bit at a time).

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 Storage Structure
Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access
directly
Random access
Typically volatile
Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity
Hard disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic
recording material
Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into
sectors
The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device
and the computer
Solid-state disks – faster than hard disks, nonvolatile
Various technologies
Becoming more popular

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 Storage Hierarchy

Storage systems organized in hierarchy

Speed
Cost
Volatility
Caching – copying information into faster storage system;
main memory can be viewed as a cache for secondary
storage
Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O
Provides uniform interface between controller and
kernel

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 Storage-Device Hierarchy

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 Caching

Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer

(in hardware, operating system, software)
Information in use copied from slower to faster storage
temporarily
Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if
information is there
If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
If not, data copied to cache and used there
Cache is smaller than storage being cached
Cache management important design problem
Cache size and replacement policy

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 Direct Memory Access Structure

Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit

information at close to memory speeds
Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer
storage directly to main memory without CPU
intervention
Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than
the one interrupt per byte

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 How a Modern Computer Works

A von Neumann architecture

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 Computer-System Architecture

Most systems use a single general-purpose processor

Most systems have special-purpose processors as well
Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is assigned a
specific task.
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs all tasks

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 Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture

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 A Dual-Core Design
Multi-chip and multicore
Systems containing all chips
Chassis containing multiple separate systems

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 Operating System Structure
Multiprogramming (Batch system) needed for efficiency
Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one
to execute
A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
One job selected and run via job scheduling
When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job

Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs

so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating
interactive computing
Response time should be < 1 second
Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory

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 Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

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 Operating-System Operations
Interrupt driven (hardware and software)
Hardware interrupt by one of the devices
Software interrupt (exception or trap):
 Software error (e.g., division by zero)
 Request for operating system service
 Other process problems include infinite loop, processes
modifying each other or the operating system

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 Operating-System Operations (cont.)

Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system

components
User mode and kernel mode
Mode bit provided by hardware
 Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user
code or kernel code
 Some instructions designated as privileged, only
executable in kernel mode
System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets
it to user
Increasingly CPUs support multi-mode operations
i.e., virtual machine manager (VMM) mode for guest VMs

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 Transition from User to Kernel Mode
Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period
Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical clock.
Operating system set the counter (privileged instruction)
When counter zero, generate an interrupt
Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate
program that exceeds allotted time

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 Process Management
A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the
system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
Process needs resources to accomplish its task
CPU, memory, I/O, files
Initialization data
Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying
location of next instruction to execute
Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time,
until completion
Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
Typically system has many processes, some user, some
operating system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes
/ threads

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 Memory Management

To execute a program, all (or part) of the instructions must be in

memory
All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must be in
memory.
Memory management determines what is in memory and when
Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
Memory management activities
Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being
used and by whom
Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to
move into and out of memory
Allocating and de-allocating memory space as needed

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 End of Chapter 1

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013