Semester IV

Course Operating Systems

Title:

Course 23DC4PCOPS Total Contact Hours: 40

Code:
Total
L-T-P: 3-0-0 3
Credits:

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.1 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Chapter 1: Introduction

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Chapter 1: Introduction
● What Operating Systems Do
● Computer-System Organization
● Computer-System Architecture
● Operating-System Structure
● Operating-System Operations
● Process Management
● Memory Management
● Storage Management
● Protection and Security

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Objectives

● To describe the basic organization of computer systems

● To provide a grand tour of the major components of operating

systems

● To give an overview of the many types of computing environments

● To explore several open-source operating systems

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 What is an Operating System?

● A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a

computer and the computer hardware

● Operating system goals:

● Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier
● Make the computer system convenient to use
● Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Four Components of a Computer System

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 What Operating Systems Do
Users View
● Users want convenience, ease of use and good performance
● Don’t care about resource utilization

● mainframe or minicomputer designed to maximize resource utilization

by sharing resources(CPU time, memory, I/O)

● Users of dedicated systems such as workstations connected to

network have dedicated resources but frequently use shared
resources(files, printer) from servers

● Handheld computers – smartphones , tablets are standalone units that

are resource poor, optimized for usability and battery life

● Some computers have little or no user interface, such as embedded

computers in devices and automobiles

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 System View

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating System Definition (Cont.)

● “The one program running at all times on the computer” is the kernel.

● Kernel is central component of an operating system that manages

operations of computer and hardware.

● Kernel loads first into memory when an operating system is loaded and
remains into memory until operating system is shut down again.

● Objectives of Kernel :
• To establish communication between user level application and hardware.
• To perform process management
• To control disk management, memory management, task management.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer System Organization

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer Startup
● bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot
● Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as firmware
● Initializes all aspects of system
● The bootstrapping process involves self-tests, loading BIOS,
configuration settings, operating system etc.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer-System Operation

● I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

● Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type

● Each device controller has a local buffer

● CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers

● I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller

● Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by

causing an interrupt

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Interrupts

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Common Functions of Interrupts

● Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally,

through the interrupt vector, which contains the addresses of all the
service routines

● Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted instruction

● A trap or exception is a software-generated interrupt caused either by

an error or a user request

● An operating system is interrupt driven

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Interrupt Handling

● The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by storing

registers and the program counter
● Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
● polling
● vectored interrupt system
● Separate segments of code determine what action should be taken for
each type of interrupt

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Storage Definitions and Notation Review
The basic unit of computer storage is the bit. A bit can contain one of two values, 0 and 1.
All other storage in a computer is based on collections of bits. Given enough bits, it is
amazing how many things a computer can represent: numbers, letters, images, movies,
sounds, documents, and programs, to name a few. A byte is 8 bits, and on most computers
it is the smallest convenient chunk of storage. For example, most computers don’t have an
instruction to move a bit but do have one to move a byte. A less common term is word,
which is a given computer architecture’s native unit of data. A word is made up of one or
more bytes. For example, a computer that has 64-bit registers and 64-bit memory
addressing typically has 64-bit (8-byte) words. A computer executes many operations in its
native word size rather than a byte at a time.

Computer storage, along with most computer throughput, is generally measured and
manipulated in bytes and collections of bytes.
A kilobyte, or KB, is 1,024 bytes
a megabyte, or MB, is 1,0242 bytes
a gigabyte, or GB, is 1,0243 bytes
a terabyte, or TB, is 1,0244 bytes
a petabyte, or PB, is 1,0245 bytes

Computer manufacturers often round off these numbers and say that a megabyte is 1 million
bytes and a gigabyte is 1 billion bytes. Networking measurements are an exception to this
general rule; they are given in bits (because networks move data a bit at a time).

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Storage Structure
● Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access
directly
● Random access
● Typically volatile
● Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity
● Hard disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic
recording material
● Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into
sectors
● The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device
and the computer
● Solid-state disks (SSD) – faster than hard disks, nonvolatile
● Various technologies
● Becoming more popular

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Storage Hierarchy

● Storage systems organized in hierarchy

● Speed
● Cost
● Volatility
● Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main
memory can be viewed as a cache for secondary storage

● Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O

● Provides uniform interface between controller and kernel

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Storage-Device Hierarchy

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 • a system call is a programmatic way in which a computer
program requests a service from the kernel of the operating
system it is executed on

• A system call is a way for programs to interact with the

operating system

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Transition from User to Kernel Mode

● Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources by user programs

● Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period( ex 1 millisec)
● Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical clock.
● Operating system set the counter (privileged instruction)
● When counter zero generate an interrupt
● Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate program
that exceeds allotted time

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Process Management

● A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the

system.

● Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.

● Process needs resources to accomplish its task

● CPU, memory, I/O, files
● Initialization data

● Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 • Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying
location of next instruction to execute
Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time,
until completion

• Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread

• Typically system has many processes, some user, some

operating system running concurrently on one or more CPUs

• Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes /

threads

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Process Management Activities

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in

connection with process management:

● Creating and deleting both user and system processes

● Suspending and resuming processes

● Providing mechanisms for process synchronization

● Providing mechanisms for process communication

● Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Memory Management

● To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in memory

● All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must be in memory.

● Memory management determines what is in memory and when

● Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users

● Memory management activities

● Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and
by whom
● Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into and
out of memory
● Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Storage Management
● OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
● Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
● Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
4 Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-transfer
rate, access method (sequential or random)

● File-System management
● Files usually organized into directories
● Access control on most systems to determine who can access what
● OS activities include
4 Creating and deleting files and directories
4 Primitives to manipulate files and directories
4 Mapping files onto secondary storage
4 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Mass-Storage Management
● Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or data that
must be kept for a “long” period of time
● Proper management is of central importance
● Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem and its
algorithms
● OS activities
● Free-space management
● Storage allocation
● Disk scheduling
● Some storage need not be fast
● Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
● Still must be managed – by OS or applications
● Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW
(read-write)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.44 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Performance of Various Levels of Storage

Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or

implicit

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.45 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Migration of data “A” from Disk to Register

● Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent

value, no matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy

● Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in

hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their
cache
● Distributed environment situation even more complex
● Several copies of a datum can exist
● Various solutions covered in Chapter 17

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.46 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 I/O Subsystem
● One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices from the
user
● I/O subsystem responsible for
● Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data
temporarily while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts of
data in faster storage for performance), spooling (the overlapping of
output of one job with input of other jobs)

● General device-driver interface

● Drivers for specific hardware devices

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.47 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Protection and Security

● Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or users to

resources defined by the OS

● Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks

● Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity theft,
theft of service

● Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can do

what
● User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated
number, one per user
● User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to
determine access control
● Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and
controls managed, then also associated with each process, file

● Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with more

rights

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.48 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 End of Chapter 1

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Chapter 2: Operating-System
Structures

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Chapter 2: Operating-System Structures

● Operating System Services

● System Calls
● Types of System Calls
● Operating System Design and Implementation
● Operating System Structure
● System Boot

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Objectives
● To describe the services an operating system provides to users,
processes, and other systems

● To discuss the various ways of structuring an operating system

● To explain how operating systems are installed and customized and

how they boot

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating System Services
● Operating systems provide an environment for execution of programs and services
to programs and users

● One set of operating-system services provides functions that are helpful to the
user:

1. User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user interface (UI).
Varies between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User Interface (GUI),
Batch

2. Program execution - The system must be able to load a program into

memory and to run that program, end execution, either normally or abnormally
(indicating error)

3. I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which may involve a file
or an I/O device

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating System Services (Cont.)

4. File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular interest. Programs need

to read and write files and directories, create and delete them, search them, list file
Information, permission management.

5. Communications – Processes may exchange information, on the same computer or

between computers over a network
4 Communications may be via shared memory or through message passing
(packets moved by the OS)

6. Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of possible errors

4 May occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, in user program
4 For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action to ensure correct
and consistent computing
4 Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and programmer’s abilities to
efficiently use the system

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating System Services (Cont.)
● Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation of the
system itself via resource sharing

7. Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple jobs running

concurrently, resources must be allocated to each of them
4 Many types of resources - CPU cycles, main memory, file storage, I/O
devices.

9. Accounting - To keep track of which users use how much and what kinds of
computer resources

9. Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a multiuser or

networked computer system may want to control use of that information,
concurrent processes should not interfere with each other
4 Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is
controlled
4 Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication,
extends to defending external I/O devices from invalid access attempts

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 A View of Operating System Services

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 System Calls
● Programming interface to the services provided by the OS

● Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++)

● Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application

Programming Interface (API) rather than direct system call use

● Three most common APIs are Win32 API for Windows, POSIX API for
POSIX-based systems (including virtually all versions of UNIX, Linux,
and Mac OS X), and Java API for the Java virtual machine (JVM)

A system call is a function that a user program uses to ask the operating system
for a particular service.
User programmers can communicate with the operating system to request its
services using the interface that is created by a system call.
system calls serve as the interface between an operating system and a
process.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Example of System Calls

● System call sequence to copy the contents of one file to another file

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Example of Standard API

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 System Call Implementation

● Typically, a number associated with each system call

● System-call interface maintains a table indexed according to
these numbers
● The system call interface invokes the intended system call in OS
kernel and returns status of the system call and any return values
● The caller need know nothing about how the system call is
implemented
● Just needs to obey API and understand what OS will do as a
result call
● Most details of OS interface hidden from programmer by API
4 Managed by run-time support library (set of functions built
into libraries included with compiler)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 API – System Call – OS Relationship

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 System Call Parameter Passing

● Often, more information is required than simply identity of desired system call
● Exact type and amount of information vary according to OS and call

● Three general methods used to pass parameters to the OS

● Simplest: pass the parameters in registers
4 In some cases, may be more parameters than registers
● Parameters stored in a block, or table, in memory, and address of block
passed as a parameter in a register
4 This approach taken by Linux and Solaris
● Parameters placed, or pushed, onto the stack by the program and popped
off the stack by the operating system
● Block and stack methods do not limit the number or length of parameters
being passed

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Parameter Passing via Table

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Types of System Calls
● Process control
● create process, terminate process
● end, abort
● load, execute
● get process attributes, set process attributes
● wait for time
● wait event, signal event
● allocate and free memory
● Dump memory if error
● Debugger for determining bugs, single step execution
● Locks for managing access to shared data between processes

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Types of System Calls

● File management
● create file, delete file
● open, close file
● read, write, reposition
● get and set file attributes
● Device management
● request device, release device
● read, write, reposition
● get device attributes, set device attributes
● logically attach or detach devices

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Types of System Calls (Cont.)

● Information maintenance
● get time or date, set time or date
● get system data, set system data
● get and set process, file, or device attributes
● Communications
● create, delete communication connection
● send, receive messages if message passing model to host
name or process name
4 From client to server
● Shared-memory model create and gain access to memory
regions
● transfer status information
● attach and detach remote devices

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Types of System Calls (Cont.)

● Protection
● Control access to resources
● Get and set permissions
● Allow and deny user access

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Examples of Windows and Unix System Calls

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Standard C Library Example
● C program invoking printf() library call, which calls write() system call

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Example: MS-DOS

● Single-tasking
● Shell invoked when system
booted
● Simple method to run
program
● No process created
● Single memory space
● Loads program into memory,
overwriting all but the kernel
● Program exit -> shell
reloaded

At system startup running a program

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Example: FreeBSD
● Unix variant
● Multitasking
● User login -> invoke user’s choice of shell
● Shell executes fork() system call to create
process
● Executes exec() to load program into
process
● Shell waits for process to terminate or
continues with user commands
● Process exits with:
● code = 0 – no error
● code > 0 – error code

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating System Design and Implementation

● Design and Implementation of OS not “solvable”, but some

approaches have proven successful

● Internal structure of different Operating Systems can vary widely

● Start the design by defining goals and specifications

● Affected by choice of hardware, type of system

● User goals and System goals

● User goals – operating system should be convenient to use,
easy to learn, reliable, safe, and fast
● System goals – operating system should be easy to design,
implement, and maintain, as well as flexible, reliable, error-free,
and efficient

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating System Design and Implementation (Cont.)

● Important principle to separate

Policy: What will be done?
Mechanism: How to do it?

● Mechanisms determine how to do something, policies decide

what will be done

● The separation of policy from mechanism is a very important

principle, it allows maximum flexibility if policy decisions are to
be changed later (example – timer)

● Specifying and designing an OS is highly creative task of

software engineering

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Implementation

● Much variation
● Early OSes in assembly language
● Then system programming languages like Algol, PL/1
● Now C, C++
● Actually usually a mix of languages
● Lowest levels in assembly
● Main body in C
● Systems programs in C, C++, scripting languages like PERL,
Python, shell scripts
● More high-level language easier to port to other hardware
● But slower
● Emulation can allow an OS to run on non-native hardware

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating System Structure
● General-purpose OS is very large program
● Various ways to structure ones
● Simple structure – MS-DOS
● More complex -- UNIX
● Layered – an abstrcation
● Microkernel -Mach

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Simple Structure -- MS-DOS

● MS-DOS – written to provide the

most functionality in the least
space
● Not divided into modules
● its interfaces and levels of
functionality are not well
separated
● Vulnerable to malicious
programs causing entire
system to crash when user
programs fail.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Non Simple Structure -- UNIX

UNIX – limited by hardware functionality,

the original UNIX operating system had limited structuring.
The UNIX OS consists of two separable parts
● Systems programs
● The kernel
4 Consists of everything below the system-call interface
and above the physical hardware
4 Provides the file system, CPU scheduling, memory
management, and other operating-system functions; a
large number of functions for one level

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Traditional UNIX System Structure
Beyond simple but not fully layered

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Layered Approach

● The operating system is divided

into a number of layers (levels),
each built on top of lower layers.
The bottom layer (layer 0), is the
hardware; the highest (layer N) is
the user interface.

● With modularity, layers are

selected such that each uses
functions (operations) and services
of only lower-level layers

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Microkernel System Structure
● Moves as much from the kernel into user space
● Mac example of microkernel
● Mac OS X kernel (Darwin)
● Communication takes place between user modules using message
passing
● Benefits:
● Easier to extend a microkernel
● Easier to port the operating system to new architectures
● More reliable (less code is running in kernel mode)
● More secure
● Detriments:
● Performance overhead of user space to kernel space
communication

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Microkernel System Structure

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Modules
● Many modern operating systems implement loadable kernel
modules
● Uses object-oriented approach
● Each core component is separate
● Each talks to the others over known interfaces
● Each is loadable as needed within the kernel
● Overall, similar to layers but with more flexible
● Linux, Solaris, etc

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Solaris Modular Approach

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Hybrid Systems

● Most modern operating systems are actually not one pure model
● Hybrid combines multiple approaches to address
performance, security, usability needs
● Linux and Solaris kernels in kernel address space, so
monolithic, plus modular for dynamic loading of functionality
● Windows mostly monolithic, plus microkernel for different
subsystem personalities

● Apple Mac OS X hybrid, layered, Aqua UI plus Cocoa

programming environment
● Below is kernel consisting of Mach microkernel and BSD Unix
parts, plus I/O kit and dynamically loadable modules (called
kernel extensions)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Mac OS X Structure

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 iOS

● Apple mobile OS for iPhone, iPad

● Structured on Mac OS X, added functionality
● Does not run OS X applications natively
4 Also runs on different CPU architecture
(ARM vs. Intel)
● Cocoa Touch Objective-C API for developing
apps
● Media services layer for graphics, audio,
video
● Core services provides cloud computing,
databases
● Core operating system, based on Mac OS X
kernel

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Android
● Developed by Open Handset Alliance (mostly Google)
● Open Source
● Similar stack to IOS
● Based on Linux kernel but modified
● Provides process, memory, device-driver management
● Adds power management
● Runtime environment includes core set of libraries and Dalvik
virtual machine
● Apps developed in Java plus Android API
4 Java class files compiled to Java bytecode then translated
to executable than runs in Dalvik VM
● Libraries include frameworks for web browser (webkit), database
(SQLite), multimedia, smaller libc

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Android Architecture

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 System Boot
● When power initialized on system, execution starts at a fixed
memory location
● Firmware ROM used to hold initial boot code
● Operating system must be made available to hardware so
hardware can start it
● Small piece of code – bootstrap loader, stored in ROM or
EEPROM locates the kernel, loads it into memory, and starts it
● Sometimes two-step process where boot block at fixed
location loaded by ROM code, which loads bootstrap loader
from disk
● Common bootstrap loader, GRUB, allows selection of kernel from
multiple disks, versions, kernel options
● Kernel loads and system is then running

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 End of Chapter 2

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013