UGC NET/JRF

PAPER 1
UNIT 6
 ARGUMENTS

▪ QUESTION 1

Consider the argument given below:

“Pre-employment testing of teachers is quite fair because doctors, architects, and engineers who are
now employed had to face such a testing.” What type of argument it is?

a. Deductive
b. Analogical
c. Psychological
d. Biological
ANSWER

b. Analogical
ARGUMENTS

▪ An argument is a set of statements used to persuade someone of something or to present reasons

for accepting a conclusion.
▪ Parts of an argument- Premise and Conclusion

1. Premises: These are the statements or reasons given to support the conclusion. They provide
the evidence or logic on which the conclusion is based.
2. Conclusion: This is the statement that the argument tries to prove or support. It follows
logically from the premises.
Example of an Argument:
Premise 1: All humans are mortal.
Premise 2: Socrates is a human.
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
 STRUCTURE OF ARGUMENT

PREMISE CONCLUSION
{ EVIDENCE/ { WHAT IS CLAIMED TO/
ACCEPTED FACTS } FOLLOW FROM }
 TYPES OF ARGUMENTS

❖ DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT
➢ It works from the more general to the more specific
➢ This is informally called a top-down approach
➢ Conclusion follows logically from premises
❖ INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT

➢ It works from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories

➢ This is informally called a bottom- up approach
➢ Conclusion is likely based on premises
➢ Involves a degree of uncertainty
DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT

1. VALID

✓ It is not possible to have false conclusion if all premises are true

❑ Premise – True
❑ Conclusion – True
✓ Eg: Jimmy is a dog
No dogs are allowed on the flight
Therefore, Jimmy is not allowed on the flight
DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT

2. INVALID

✓ It is possible to have false conclusion even if all the premises are true
❑ Premise – True
❑ Coclusion – False
✓ Eg: All lawyers study logic
Reyhan is not lawyer
Therefore, Reyhan does not study logic
SOUNDNESS

SOUND ARGUMENT

All true premises + Valid Argument

Eg : All television networks are media companies

Asianet is a television network
Therefore, Asianet is a media company

Note:- All invalid deductive arguments are unsound

FORMS OF DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT

• Syllogism - Argument consist of two premises and one conclusion.

➢ Syllogism can be divided into

1. Categorical syllogism :- Begins with all, Some, No etc..,
2. Hypothetical syllogism :- Conditional- If, Then
3. Disjunctive syllogism :- Having either……or and neither………nor

• An argument based on mathematics

• An argument from definition
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT

1. STRONG ARGUMENT

➢ Argument succeeds in providing probable but not conclusive logical support for its
conclusion
Eg :- Most peacocks eat oats
This bird is a peacock
Thus, probably this bird eats oats
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT

2. WEAK ARGUMENT

➢ An argument that fails to provide probable support for its conclusion

➢ Eg :- Christina is a women
Some women like poetry
Therefore, Christina likes poetry
COGENCY

➢ Cogency is the attribute of an Inductive arguments that denotes the truth of its premises and its
logical strength

STRONG + TRUE PREMISES

Eg :- Europe has an atmosphere containing Oxygen

Oxygen is required for life
Thus, there may life on Europe

Note :- All weak inductive arguments are uncogent

FORMS OF INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS

▪ A Prediction
▪ An argument from analogy
▪ A generalization
▪ An argument from authority
▪ An argument based on signs
▪ Casual Inference – Argument that proceeds from knowledge of a cause
CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS

• It is a preposition that asserts or denies that all or some of the members of one category are
included in another
• There exists a relationship between the subject and the predicate without any condition
• The study of arguments using categorical statements forms an important branch of deductive
reasoning
COMPONENTS OF CATEGORICAL PREPOSITION

➢ A proposition also known as a premise, comprise of a quantifier , subject, a predicate and a copula
Eg :- All airplanes are trains
All S are P
[ S for Subject ]
[ P for Predicate ]
[ All – Quantifier ]
[ Are – Copula]
SYLLOGISM

o Syllogism is a deductive argument that is composed of three proposition

o Eg :- All dogs are mammals
Charlie is a dog
Charlie is a mammal

➢ Standard form of syllogism

✓ It is an argument with 2 premises and 1 conclusion
✓ It contain exactly three different terms
✓ Each term is used exactly twice
SYLLOGISM

▪ Major Term – Predicate of Conclusion ( P )

▪ Minor Term – Subject of Conclusion ( S )
▪ Middle Term – Term that occurs in both premises
Eg:- All dogs are mammal
Charlie is a dog
Charlie is a mammal

Note :- 1. The first premise of a syllogism is called it’s MAJOR PREMISE

2. The second premise is called the MINOR PREMISE
MOOD AND FIGURES

➢ Once a categorical syllogism is in standard form, we can determine its Mood and Figure
➢ The form of the syllogism is named by listing the mood first, then the figure
➢ The mood of a categorical syllogism is a series of three corresponding to the type of proposition
in major premise, the minor premise, and the conclusion (A, E, I, O)
➢ The figure of a categorical proposition is a number which corresponds to the placement of two
middle term
 FIGURE

FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2 FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4

M P P M M P P M

S M S M M S M S

S P S P S P S P
EXAMPLE

All mammals are attractive

All dogs are mammals
Therefore, all dogs are attractive

Mood :- AAA
Figure :- 1
QUESTION
A. Statement 1. A statement in an argument that is intended to be
proved or supported by the premise
B. Premise 2. A sentence that can be viewed as true or false
C. Conclusion 3. Group of statements intended to prove or support
another statement
D. Argument 4. Reason why we should accept another statement or
condition
1. A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4
2. A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3
3. A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3
4. A-2, B-3, C-4, D-1
ANSWER

2. A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3

FALLACIES

✓ A fallacy is a defect in an argument which misleads the mind.

✓ The defect may be intentional or unintentional.
➢ Types of fallacies
▪ Ad Hominem ▪ To Quoque Fallacy
▪ Straw Man ▪ Fallacy of Sunk Cost
▪ Appeal to Ignorance ▪ Appeal to Authority
▪ Slippery Slope ▪ Equivocation
▪ Circular Arrangement ▪ Appeal to Pity
▪ Hasty Generalization ▪ Bandwagon Fallacy
▪ Red Herring
EQUIVOCATION ( AMBIGUITY )

➢ Dual Meaning
➢ Occurs when a key term in an argument is used in an ambiguous way, with one meaning in one
Portion, and another meaning in another portion of an argument
➢ Eg :- Soil is natural
Natural things are good for you
So, its ok to ingest soil
BANDWAGON FALLACY

➢ Assume something is true because other people agree with it

➢ A proposition is claimed to be true because many people believe it to be
➢ Eg:- Diet and Excercise
QUESTION

No one has been ever able to prove that Glaciers in the article region are melting because of global
warming. Therefore glaciers in the article region must be melting on their own.
Which fallacy is committed in the above statement.
1. Fallacy of Accident
2. Slippery Slope
3. Hasty Generalization
4. Appeal to Ignorance
ANSWER

4. Appeal to Ignorance
QUESTION

Professor Guru has argued in favour of academic tenure. But why should we even listen to him ?
As a tenure Professor, is related to the fallacy of
1. Ad Hominem
2. Hasty Generalization
3. Slippery Slope
4. Red Herring
ANSWER

1. Ad Hominem