Skeletal System

 Components of the skeletal system:

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM  Bones (skeleton)
 Joints
 Cartilages
 Ligaments (connect bone to bone)
 Tendons (connect bone to muscle)
By:
Ashete. A
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Functions of the Skeletal System

 Support
• Provides the framework for the attachment of other
organs
 Storage of minerals
• Calcium ions: 98 percent of the body’s calcium
. Phosphate ions
 Blood cell production
• Bone marrow produces erythrocytes, leukocytes,
and platelets
 Fat storage:- fat is stored in medullary cavity of certain bones
yellow bone marrow

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 Characteristics of bones
Functions of the Skeletal System
 Leverage  Highly vascular
o Muscles pull on the bones to produce  Hard and rigid
movement
 Protection  Mineralized
o Ribs protect heart and lungs  Have regeneration capacity
o Skull protects the brain  Have canalicular system for transport of
o Vertebrae protect the spinal cord
o Pelvic bones protect the reproductive organs nutrients
 Develop either by intramembranous or
endochondral ossification
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I. According to their Location

Axial Skeleton Appendicular
• Long axis of the body Skeleton
• 80 bones in three major • Bones of upper & lower
Classification of the Bones regions extremities and girdles
– Skull • 126 bones in three major
– Vertebral column regions
– Bony thorax – Girdles
• Ribs • Shoulder girdle
• Sternum • Pelvic girdle
– upper extremity
– lower extremity

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II. Classification Of Bone According To Mode Of

Development
Membranous bones
▫ These bones develop through Intra membranous
ossification.
▫ Intra membranous ossification is a process of
conversion of embryonic mesenchyme directly into
bone.
 Eg: Bones of the vault of the skull, Bones of the
face, Clavicle
Cartilaginous bones
▫ These develop by the process of endochondral
ossification.
▫ Here a cartilage model of future bone is formed first
which changes into bone.
Eg: Humerus, radius etc…
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 III. Classification of bone according to
macroscopic appearance
Compact bone
▫ It forms the outer shell of the shaft of long bones &
vertebrae.
▫ Compact bone tissue is compactly arranged & contains
few spaces and is the strongest form of bone tissue.
▫ Compact bone tissue provides protection and support
and resists the stresses produced by weight and
movement.
Cancellous bone or spongy bone
▫ It is spongy in nature
▫ It is seen internal to compact bones and at the ends of
long bones.
▫ In contrast to compact bone tissue, spongy bone tissue
does not contain osteons but it contains lamellae of bone
called trabeculae.
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IV. According to their Shape Long Bones

 Typically longer than wide
 Have a shaft with heads at
 Long both ends
 Short  Contain mostly compact
bone
 Flat
E.g:-
 Irregular o Femur (thigh bone)
o Tibia and fibula (leg
 Sesamoid
bones),
o Humerus (arm bone),
o Ulna and radius
(forearm bones).
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Classification of Bones on the Basis of Short bones
o They are short and is
Shape somewhat cube-shaped
and are nearly equal in
length and width.
o They consist of spongy
bone tissue except at the
surface, which has a thin
layer of compact bone
tissue.
o E.g.:
 The carpal (wrist)
bones and
 The tarsal (ankle)
bones

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Flat bones Flat Bones of the Skull

 They are flat & thin.  Compact bone has two layer:
 It is composed of two nearly parallel plates of compact bone – Inner table
tissue enclosing a layer of spongy bone tissue. – Outer table
 Flat bones afford considerable protection and provide extensive  Region of spongy bone sandwiched between them
areas for muscle attachment. – Called the diploe
▫ E.g.:  Both layers of compact bone are covered by periosteum
o The cranial bones
o The sternum and ribs
o The scapulae

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 Sesamoid bones
Irregular bones ▫ Bones develop in certain tendons where there is considerable
▫ They are irregular in shape friction, tension, and physical stress, such as the palms and soles.
▫ They have complex shapes and cannot be grouped into any ▫ They may vary in number from person to person, are not always
of the previous categories. completely ossified.
▫ They vary in the amount of spongy and compact bone ▫ Sesamoid bones protect tendons from excessive wear and tear.
present.
Eg: The patellae, the largest sesamoid bones

• E.g.:
▫ The vertebrae
▫ The hip bones
▫ Some facial bones

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Structure of Long Bone Structure of a Long Bone

Periosteum
Diaphysis
 Outside covering of the
 Shaft diaphysis
 Composed of compact  Fibrous connective tissue
bone membrane

Epiphysis Sharpey’s fibers

 Secure periosteum to
 Ends of the bone underlying bone
 Composed mostly of Arteries
spongy bone
 Supply bone cells with
nutrients
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 Structures of a Long Bone Structure of a Long Bone

Articular cartilage Medullary cavity

• Covers the external surface • Cavity of the shaft
of the epiphyses
• Contains yellow marrow
• Made of hyaline cartilage (mostly fat) in adults
• Decreases friction at joint • Contains red marrow (for
surfaces blood cell formation) in
infants

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Cells present in bones

 Four types of cells are present in bone tissue. Osteogenic cells
 These are: ▫ They are bone stem cells derived from
o The osteogenic cells mesenchyme.
o The osteoblasts ▫ They are the only bone cells to undergo cell
o The osteocytes division; the resulting cells develop into
osteoblasts.
o The osteoclasts .
▫ They are found along the inner portion of the
periosteum, in the endosteum, and in the canals
within bone that contain blood vessels.

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Osteoblasts
▫ They are bone-building cells.
▫ They synthesize and secrete collagen fibers and other organic Osteoclasts
components needed to build the extracellular matrix of bone ▫ They are huge cells derived from the fusion of as many
tissue, and they initiate calcification. as 50 monocytes
▫ They surround themselves with extracellular matrix, they ▫ They are concentrated in the endosteum.
become trapped in their secretions and become osteocytes. ▫ The cell releases powerful lysosomal enzymes and
acids that digest the protein and mineral components of
Osteocytes the underlying extracellular bone matrix.
▫ They are the mature bone cells, & are formed from osteoblast
▫ Cells occupy pits called Howship’s Lacunae or
cells.
resorption bays
▫ Like osteoblasts, osteocytes do not undergo cell division.
▫ They help to regulate blood calcium level
▫ They lie in spaces called lacunae situated between lamellae
▫ Maintain healthy bone (maintain its daily metabolism, such as
the exchange of nutrients and wastes with the blood )
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Microscopic Anatomy of Bone Microscopic Anatomy of Bone

Osteon (Haversian System)
• A unit of bone
Central (Haversian) canal
• Opening in the center of an osteon
• Carries blood vessels and nerves
Perforating (Volkman’s) canal
• Canal perpendicular to the central canal
• Carries blood vessels and nerves

Figure 5.3

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 Microscopic Anatomy of Bone Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
Lacunae
• Cavities containing bone Canaliculi
cells (osteocytes) • Tiny canals
• Arranged in concentric
rings • Radiate from the central
canal to lacunae
Lamellae
• Form a transport system
• Rings around the central
canal
• Sites of lacunae

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The Axial Skeleton Axial

 Forms the longitudinal part of the body Skeleton
 Divided into three parts
• Skull
• Vertebral column
• Bony thorax Skull 22
Auditory ossicles 6
Hyoid 1
Vertebrae 26
Ribs 24
Sternum 1
Total = 80
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 The Skull The Skull
 Two sets of bones
• Cranium (8)
• Facial bones (14)
 Bones are joined by sutures

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Divisions of the bones of the skull

The Skull a. Cerebral / cranial bones / brain case (8 bones)
unpaired (4) paired (4)
1. occipital 1. parietal
2. frontal 2. temporal
3. sphenoid
4. ethmoid

b. Facial or visceral cranium

paired (12) unpaired (2)
a. Nasal a. Vomer
b. Lacrimal b. Mandible
c. Maxilla
d. Zygomatic / malar / cheek bones
e. Palatine
39 f. Inferior nasal concha 40
 Cranial Bones Cont.
• Protects brain - Sphenoid bone (1):- keystone bone (all other
bones articulate with it)
• Composed of 8 flat bones (fibrous joints in
• shaped like bat with outstretched wings
adults; fontanels in new born)
• completes sides of skull and contributes to orbits
– Frontal bone (1):- forms anterior roof of
- Ethmoid bone (1):- lies in front of sphenoid
cranium, nasal cavity & orbit
• forms orbits and nasal septum
– Parietal bone(2):- separated from frontal
bone by coronal suture
– Occipital bone (1):- forms the back & much
of the base of the skull
– Temporal (2):- forms lower sides of the
cranium & has 4 parts
Squamous, tympanic, mastoid and petrous (internal) 41 42

Human Skull, Superior View Human Skull, Inferior View

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 Features of cranial bones Features of cranial bones…
1. Sutures:- fibrous joints where cranial
bones meet. Functions of fontanel's:
- coronal, sagittal, lambdiod and  Allow molding of skull
squamous sutures during delivery
2. Fontanels:- areas where sutures meet  Permits free growth of skull
bones & brain
are feature of fetal skull.  Give signs for level of
- anterior, posterior, anterolateral & hydration & increased
intracranial pressure
posterolateral fontanels
 Help to determine position of
head prior to delivery

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Features of cranial bones

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 3. Paranasal Sinuses
 Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal cavity
 These includes frontal sinus, maxillary sinus,
sphenoidal sinus, and ethmoidal sinus.

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Paranasal Sinuses… Facial Bones

• Provide the basic shape of the face
 Functions of paranasal sinuses
• All are paired except vomer & mandible
• Lighten the skull • Consist of about 14 bones
• Give resonance and amplification to voice
Mandible (1):- forms the lower jaw bone
• Produce mucus - only movable bone of skull
- attached to the cranium by TMJ
- has 3 parts: body, ramus, and condyloid & coronoid
processes

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Facial Bones Cont…
Maxilla (2):- holds upper teeth, forms hard palate
Zygomatic bones (2):- forms cheek bone of face
Nasal bone (2):- helps to support the flexible cartilaginous
plates
Nasal concha (2):- superior, middle & inferior
Vomer (1):- forms the lower part of nasal septum
Lacrimal bone (2):- forms medial wall of orbit
Palatine bone (2):-forms posterior part of hard palate, part
of orbit & nasal cavity.

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 Auditory Ossicles The Hyoid Bone

• Three auditory ossicles in  The only bone that does

the middle ear of each ear not articulate with
- mallus another bone
- incus
- stapes  Serves as a moveable
• Helps to transmit sound base for the tongue
impulses

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The Vertebral Column The Vertebral Column

 The adult vertebral column is made up of 26 bones:
 24 vertebra, 1 sacrum, and 1 coccyx

 The vertebral column performs several functions:

 Encloses and protects the spinal cord

 Supports the weight of the head, neck, and trunk

 Transfers weight to the lower limbs

 Helps to maintain the upright position of the body

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 Vertebrae Cont… The Vertebral Column
Classification of vertebrae young adult
cervical 7 7  Vertebrae separated by
thoracic 12 12 intervertebral discs
lumbar 5 5
sacral 5 1  The spine has a normal
coccygeal 4 1 curvature
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Intervertebral discs = flattened plates of fibrocartilage that
 Each curvature is given a
are interposed b/n the adjacent surfaces of the name according to its
bodies of vertebrae location
Function Intervertebral discs :
1. uniting medium b/n vertebrae
2. main shock absorber
3. give flexibility & movement to the vertebral column61 62

Cont. Cont.
Abnormal curvatures
• Has four curvatures in adults (cervical, thoracic, •Result from exaggeration of a normal curve include;
lumbar & sacral)
- Scoliosis (abnormal lateral curvature)
- thoracic & sacral: are primary curves - Kyphosis (abnormal posterior curvature - hunchback)
- cervical & lumbar: are secondary curves - Lordosis (abnormal anterior curvature – swayback)
• The curves function in:- increasing the strength
- maintaining balance

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 The Bony Thorax The Bony Thorax
 Forms a cage  Made-up of
to protect three parts
major organs
 Sternum
 Ribs
 Thoracic
vertebrae

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Ribs Sternum
 Flat bone located anteriorly
12 pairs (connect directly to thoracic vertebrae in
 Has 3 fused bones: manubrium, body & xiphoid
the back)
 1-7 pairs “true ribs” connect directly to sternum process

anteriorly  On its side, it has costal & clavicular notches and

 8-10pairs are called "false ribs” superiorly jugular notch
 last 2 pairs(11-12) “floating ribs” do not attach to  Sternal angle is palpated between manubrium &
sternum at all
body

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 The Upper Limb bones
Appendicular Skeleton Upper limb consists of 4 segments
• Shoulder; pectoral girdle
• Arm
 126 bones of the: – Humerus
 Limbs (appendages) • Forearm
– Ulna
 Pectoral girdle
– Radius
 Pelvic girdle
• Hand
– Wrist ( carpal bones)
– Palm (metacarpal bones)
– Fingers (phalanges)
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The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle Clavicle (collar bone)

 Composed of two bones  Double curved bones extending along the superior aspect thorax

• Clavicle (2) – collarbone  The medial two thirds of the shaft of the clavicle are convex anteriorly,
whereas the lateral third is flattened and concave anteriorly
• Scapula (2) – shoulder blade
gives S-shaped slender collar bone
 These bones allow the upper limb to have
curvatures increase the resilience of the clavicle
exceptionally free movement
 sternal end: articulates with manubrium of the sternum at the
– Attached only anteriorly to the axial skeleton on sternoclavicular (SC) joint
sternum by sternoclavicular joint
 acromial end: articulates with acromion of scapula at the
– Loosely attached, held in place largely by acromioclavicular (AC) joint
musculature
 It has two surface superior & inferior surface
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Bones of the Shoulder Girdle Scapula
Large triangular flat bone located posteriorly

Has spine on the posterior aspect

Has 3 fossa: supraspinous, infraspinous &

subscapular fossa

Glenoid cavity for head of humerus lies laterally

Has 3 borders: superior, medial & lateral

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Has 3 angles: superior, inferior & lateral 74

Bones of the Shoulder Girdle Bones of the Upper Limb

 The arm is
formed by a
single bone
 Humerus

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 Humerus Bones of the Upper Limb……
• The longest bone of upper
extremity
• Consist of
• The forearm has
– head, anatomical &
two bones
surgical necks, tubercles
(greater & lesser) • Ulna
intertubercular groove in
• Radius
between and shaft (body)
• Surgical neck :commonly fractured
site of humerus
– narrow part just distal to the
tubercles
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Phalanges
Bones of the Upper Limb…
These are 14 bones
- Medial 4 digits have
 The hand proximal, middle &
distal phalanx
• Carpals – wrist
- Thumb has only
• Metacarpals – palm proximal & distal
phalanx
• Phalanges – fingers
- Each phalanx has
base, body & head

• The distal phalanges are flattened and expanded

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at their distal ends, which underlie the nail beds 80
 The Lower Limb
 Responsible for transferring
the body weight to the
ground
 Consists of the following
Bones of the lower limbs structures:
 The hip bones
 The femur (thigh)
 The patella (kneecap)
 The tibia (leg)
 The fibula (leg)
 Tarsal bones of the ankle
 Metatarsal bones and
phalanges of the foot
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Bones of the Pelvic Girdle Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

 Pelvic girdle is a basin-shaped ring bones Functions
connects vertebral column to the two femurs.
 Bear the weight of the upper body when sitting
and standing.
 Transfer it to the lower appendicular skeleton for
standing and walking
 Provide attachment for the erectile bodies of the
external genitalia and muscles
 Protects several organs
• Reproductive organs
• Urinary bladder
• Part of the large intestine

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 HIP BONES
HIP BONES
• Two in number; Rt & Lt
• Each hip bone is formed
• Joined at the pubic symphysis anteriorly
by 3 bones fusing at the
and to the sacrum posteriorly at the
acetabulum
sacroiliac joints to form a bony ring, the
pelvic girdle • The 3 bones are:
– Ilium,
– Ischium &
– Pubis

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Ischium
Ilium
lies posteroinferior
 The largest & uppermost
of the three ischial spine inferior to greater sciatic
 Flattened, fan-shaped notch
part of the hip bone Ischial tuberosity, the part we sit on
 Located superior to the  Has a body and a ramus
acetabulum  Body
 Parts forms the posterior part of the acetabulum
 Body  Ramus
Ala (wing) fuses with the inferior ramus of pubis

Iliac crest

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Pubis:
• Anteromedial part of hip bone
• Forms anterior part of the acetabulum
• Angulated bone; has two rami (inferior & superior) and
body
Landmarks
 pecten pubis or pectineal line
oblique ridge on superior pubic ramus on its
superior aspect
 pubic crest
thickening on the anterior part of the body of
the pubis
ends laterally as a swelling - pubic tubercle 89 90

Gender Differences of the Pelvis Gender Differences of the Pelvis

o The female inlet is larger and more circular.
o The female pelvis as a whole is shallower, and the
bones are lighter and thinner.
o The female ilia flare more laterally.
o The female sacrum is shorter and less curved.
o The female Ischial spines are shorter and farther
apart; thus the outlet is larger.
o The female pubic arch is more rounded because the
angle of the pubic arch is greater

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Gender Differences of the Pelvis Bones of the Lower Limbs

 The thigh has

one bone
• Femur

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• Femur Cont.
- longest, heaviest & strongest bone in the body Patella
- proximal head articulates with acetabulum - Triangular, sesamoid bone
- fovea capitis femoris for ligament attachment lie on the anterior side of
- neck is most commonly fractured site
knee
- has trochanter (greater & lesser) and intertrochanteric line
in b/n - Has base, apex & articular
- vertical ridge posterior called linea aspera facets
- distal end articulates with tibia; and has medial & lateral
condyles - Function to protect knee
joint & strengthen the
quadriceps tendon
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 Bones of the Lower Limbs… Tibia
- Articulate proximally with femur at knee joint
- Distally articulate with the talus of ankle
- Has medial & lateral condyles & intercondylar eminence in
 The leg has b/n
two bones - Has tibial tuberosity anteriorly where patellar ligament
attaches
• Tibia - Distally it has medial malleolus
• Fibula Fibula
- Long, narrow bone on the lateral side of leg
- Important for muscle attachment than support
- Has head, neck & lateral malleolus
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Bones of the Lower Limbs Joints

 Articulations of bones
 Are places of union between two or more
bones.
 The foot  Functions of joints
• Tarsus – ankle • Hold bones together
• Metatarsals – sole • Allow for mobility

• Phalanges – toes • Weakest parts of the skeleton but have ability

to resist the forces that tear them apart
 Ways joints are classified
• Functionally
Figure 5.25
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• Structurally 100
 Functional Classification of Joints Structural Classification of Joints
 Based on the material binding the bones
 Based on the amount of movement allowed at together and whether or not there is a joint
the joint cavity
 Synarthroses – immovable joints
 Fibrous joints:- Generally immovable
 Amphiarthroses – slightly moveable joints
 Cartilaginous joints
 Diarthroses – freely moveable joints
- Immovable or slightly moveable
 Synovial joints:- Freely moveable

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Fibrous Joints
 Bones united by fibrous tissue
 Synarthrosis or largely immovable.
• This type of joint includes:
1. Sutures:- held by strong connective tissue
& common in skull
2. Syndesmoses:- bones united by sheet of
fibrous tissue e.g IO Mem.
3. Gomphosis:- unique joint b/n a tooth & its
socket

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 Cartilaginous Joints
 Mostly amphiarthrosis
 Bones connected by either hyaline (synchondroses)
or fibrocartilage (symphysis)
 Examples
 Pubic symphysis
 Intervertebral joints

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Synovial Joints
o Most common & important one
o Provide free movement in most parts
o Has lubricating fluid (synovial fluid) lined with
synovial membrane (capsule)
o Has three unique features
1. Joint cavity
2. Articular cartilage
3. Articular capsule with membrane

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 Types of Synovial Joints 1. Plane Joint
• Based on the shape of their articular surfaces • Articular surfaces are
essentially flat
there are six major categories of synovial
joints • Allow only short
slipping or gliding
– Plane movements
– Hinge • Non-axial joint
– Pivot • Examples
– Condyloid – Intercarpals
– Saddle – Intertarsals
– Ball and socket – Acromoclavicular J
– Sternoclavicular J

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2. Hinge Joint 3. Pivot Joint

• A cylindrical shaped projection of bone • The rounded end of a bone protrudes into a ring
fits into a trough shaped surface of of bone and ligaments on another bone
another bone
• Only movement allowed is rotation of bone around
• Joint components resemble that of a
mechanical hinge long axis
• Permit flexion & extension only (uniaxial Example
joint)
• Example – joint b/n the atlas & axis
– Elbow joint – proximal radioulnar joint
– knee joint
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 4. Condyloid Joints
5. Saddle Joints
• The oval articular surface of one
bone fits into a complementary
• Each surface has both a
concavity in another
concave and a convex
• Biaxial joints surface that fit together
• Example • Opposing surfaces of
– Metacarpo- phalangeal joints bones are like saddle
– TMJ (biaxial joint)
• Example
– Carpometacarpal jion
of the thumb

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6. Ball and Socket Joint

• The spherical head of one bone articulates with the
cuplike socket of another
• The most freely moving synovial joint
• Movements in all planes is allowed
 Multi-axial
• Examples
– Shoulder joint
– Hip joint

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