The Skeletal System

Human Body (206)

Axial Skeleton (80)
Skull (28)
A. Paired Bones (11x2 =22)
1.Nasal Bone - The nasal bones are two small oblong bones, varying in size and form in
different individuals; they are placed side by side at the middle and upper part of the face and by
their junction, form the bridge of the upper one third of the nose. Each has two surfaces and four
borders.
2.Lacrimal Bone - The lacrimal bones are small, flat craniofacial bones located in the eye
socket. These rectangular bones consist of two surfaces, one facing the nose, the other facing the
eye. Facial fractures can involve the lacrimal bone.
3.Inferior Nasal Concha - The inferior nasal concha is a scroll-shaped, paired bone that rests
at the lateral wall of the nasal cavity. It helps to filter and humidify the air that we breathe. The
nasal conchae (plural of concha) are also sometimes called turbinates
4.Maxiallary - The maxilla is the bone that forms your upper jaw. The right and left halves of
the maxilla are irregularly shaped bones that fuse together in the middle of the skull, below the
nose, in an area known as the intermaxillary suture. The maxilla is a major bone of the face
5.Zygomatic - The zygomatic bones are a pair of diamond-shaped, irregularly-shaped bones
that protrude laterally and form the prominence of the cheeks, a portion of the lateral wall, the
orbit floor, and some portions of the temporal fossa and infratemporal fossa.
6.Temporal - The temporal bones are two major bones in the skull, or cranium. They help
form the sides and base of the skull, where they protect the temporal lobe of the brain and
surround the ear canal. The other major bones in the skull are: the two parietal bones that make
up the top of the skull. ... the sphenoid bone at the temple
7.Palatine - Making up a portion of the nasal cavity and palate, the palatine bone is a paired,
L-shaped facial bone. It forms a part of the underside of the skull, and lies between the maxilla
bone (the fixed, upper bone of the jaw) and the sphenoid bone (whose wings help form the base
of the eye sockets and base of the skull).
8.Parietal - cranial bone forming part of the side and top of the head. In front each parietal
bone adjoins the frontal bone; in back, the occipital bone; and below, the temporal and sphenoid
bones. The parietal bones are marked internally by meningeal blood vessels and externally by the
temporal muscles.
9.Malleus - The malleus (“hammer”), incus (“anvil”), and stapes (“stirrup”) are the three
bones, also known as ossicles, of the inner ear. ... The malleus is shaped like a hammer, thus its
Latin name. It sits in the middle ear between the incus and the eardrum. The parts of the malleus
include the head, neck, and handle.
10.Incus - The incus, also known as the “anvil,” is the middle of three small bones in the
middle ear. The incus transmits vibrations from the malleus to the stapes. The vibrations then
move to the inner ear. Conditions that affect the incus often affect the other ossicle bones.
11.Stapes - Stapes bone is the smallest bone in our body. It is the innermost bone of our
auditory ossicles in the middle ear, which are responsible for transmitting sound waves from the
air outside to the fluid-filled labyrinth (cochlea).

B. Unpaired Bone
1. Frontal – The frontal bone is a bone in the human skull. The bone consists of two
portions. These are the vertically oriented squamous part, and the horizontally oriented
orbital part, making up the bony part of the forehead, part of the bony orbital cavity
holding the eye, and part of the bony part of the nose respectively.
2. Ethmoid - The ethmoid bone is a single midline facial bone that separates the nasal
cavity from the brain and is located at the roof of the nose and between the orbits. It is a
cubical shape and is relatively lightweight because of its spongy construction and air-
filled sinuses. It contributes to the anterior cranial fossa
3. Vomer – Located in the center of the nasal cavity, the vomer is a thin, unpaired bone of
the face and skull (cranium). This small, trapezoidal bone serves as part of the nasal
septum, which is the middle wall of the nasal respiratory cavity.
4. Sphenoid – The sphenoid bone is an unpaired bone of the neurocranium. It is situated in
the middle of the skull towards the front, in front of the basilar part of the occipital bone.
The sphenoid bone is one of the seven bones that articulate to form the orbit.
5. Mandible – The mandible is the largest bone in the human skull. It holds the lower teeth
in place, it assists in mastication and forms the lower jawline. The mandible is composed
of the body and the ramus and is located inferior to the maxilla
6. Occipital – The occipital bone (also known as C0) is a trapezoid skull bone that
contributes to the posteroinferior part of the cranial vault. It is pierced by the foramen
magnum, permitting communication from the cranial cavity to the vertebral canal

Torso
A. Paired Bones (12×2=24)
1. Rib 1
2. Rib 2 –
3. Rib 3 -
4. Rib 4
5. Rib 5
6. Rib 6
7. Rib 7
8. Rib 8 (False)
9. Rib 9 (False)
10. Rib 10 (False)
11. Rib 11 (Floating)
12. Rib 12 (Floating)
Rib Structure
There are two classifications of ribs – atypical and typical. The typical ribs have a
generalised structure, while the atypical ribs have variations on this structure.
Typical Ribs (3,4,5,6,7,8,9)
The typical rib consists of a head, neck and body:
The head is wedge shaped, and has two articular facets separated by a wedge of bone. One
facet articulates with the numerically corresponding vertebra, and the other articulates with
the vertebra above.
The neck contains no bony prominences, but simply connects the head with the body. Where
the neck meets the body there is a roughed tubercle, with a facet for articulation with the
transverse process of the corresponding vertebra.
The body, or shaft of the rib is flat and curved. The internal surface of the shaft has a groove
for the neurovascular supply of the thorax, protecting the vessels and nerves from damage
Atypical Ribs
Ribs 1, 2, 10 11 and 12 can be described as ‘atypical’ – they have features that are not
common to all the ribs.
Rib 1 is shorter and wider than the other ribs. It only has one facet on its head for articulation
with its corresponding vertebra (there isn’t a thoracic vertebra above it). The superior surface
is marked by two grooves, which make way for the subclavian vessels. The first rib is the
most superior of the twelve ribs. It is an atypical rib and is an important anatomical
landmark. It is one of the borders of the superior thoracic aperture. The ribs form the main
structure of the thoracic cage that protects the thoracic organs.
Rib 2 is thinner and longer than rib 1, and has two articular facets on the head as normal. It
has a roughened area on its upper surface, from which the serratus anterior muscle originates.
second rib is defined as a true rib since it connects with the sternum through the intervention
of the costal cartilage anteriorly (at the front). Posteriorly, the second rib is connected with
the vertebral column by the second thoracic vertebra
Rib 10 only has one facet – for articulation with its numerically corresponding vertebra.
Ribs 11 and 12 have no neck, and only contain one facet, which is for articulation with their
corresponding vertebra.
B. Unpaired Bones
1. Hyoid – hyoid bone, U-shaped bone situated at the root of the tongue in the front of the
neck and between the lower jaw and the largest cartilage of the larynx, or voice box. The
primary function of the hyoid bone is to serve as an attachment structure for the tongue
and for muscles in the floor of the oral cavity.
2. Sternum – The sternum or breastbone is a long flat bone located in the central part of the
chest. It connects to the ribs via cartilage and forms the front of the rib cage, thus helping
to protect the heart, lungs, and major blood vessels from injury.
3. Cervical Vertebrae 1 (atlas) -
4. C2 (axis)
Upper Cervical Spine Enables Wide Ranges of Neck Movement
The upper cervical spine is unlike any other part of the vertebral column. The atlas (C1) and axis
(C2) are part of the spine’s craniovertebral junction (CVJ)—this is where the base of your brain
becomes part of your spinal column. Working together, the atlas and axis are primarily
responsible for spinal rotation, flexion (bend forward) and extension (bend backward). This is
the most mobile section of your entire spine. Roughly 50% of flexion and extension of the neck,
similar to nodding your head occurs here and 50% of rotation also occurs here. Remember, while
C1 and C2 allow tremendous ranges of neck movement, they are supporting your head too.
5. C3
6. C4
7. C5
8. C6
9. C7
C3-C7 Vertebrae, Cervical Discs, Supporting Structures
If you compare the thoracic (mid back) and lumbar (low back) vertebrae to the cervical, you’ll
see the C3-C7 bones are smaller. The vertebral bodies are round shapes. At the back of the
vertebral body are bony arches that project outward to form the facet joints and spinous
processes. These bony elements naturally create a hollow opening in the center of the cervical
spinal column—a canal that houses and protects the spinal cord.
10. Thoracic Vertebrae 1
11. T2
12. T3
13. T4
14. T5
15. T6
16. T7
17. T8
18. T9
 19. T10
20. T11
21. T12
Superior and Inferior Costal Facets
The superior and inferior costal facets are located on the sides of each vertebral body. They
consist of cartilage lined depressions, which articulate with the heads of the ribs. The superior
facet articulates with the head of the adjacent rib, and the inferior facet articulates with the head
of the rib below
In the majority of the vertebrae (T2-T9) these facets are demi-facets. There are some atypical
vertebrae that possess whole facets.
Atypical Vertebrae
The atypical thoracic vertebrae display variation in the size, location and number of their
superior and inferior costal facets.
T1 – Superior facet is not a demifacet, as this is the only vertebrae to articulate with the 1st rib.
T10 – A single pair of whole facets is present which articulate with the 10th rib. These facets are
located across both the vertebral body and the pedicle.
T11 and T12 – Each have a single pair of entire costal facets, which are located on the pedicles.
22. Lumbar Vertebrae 1
23. L2
24. L3
25. L4
26. L5
The lumbar spine is the lower back that begins below the last thoracic vertebra (T12) and ends at
the top of the sacral spine, or sacrum (S1). Most people have 5 lumbar levels (L1-L5), although it
is not unusual to have 6. Each lumbar spinal level is numbered from top to bottom—L1 through
L5, or L6.
The low back vertebral bodies are larger, thicker block-like structures of dense bone. From the
front (or anterior), the vertebral body appears rounded. However, the posterior bony structure is
different—lamina, pedicles and bony processes project off the back of the vertebral body. These
processes and vertebral arches create the hollow spinal canal for lumbar nerves structures and the
cauda equina.
27. Sacrum – The sacrum (plural: sacra or sacrums), in human anatomy, is a large, triangular
bone at the base of the spine that forms by the fusing of the sacral vertebrae (S1–S5)
between ages 18 and 30. The sacrum situates at the upper, back part of the pelvic cavity,
between the two wings of the pelvis.
28. Coccyx – The coccyx is the triangular bony structure located at the bottom of the
vertebral column. It is composed of three to five bony segments held in place by joints
 and ligaments. The majority of coccyx injuries occur in women, because the female
pelvis is broader and the coccyx is more exposed

Appendicular Skeleton (126)

Upper Extremity (32 x 2 = 64)
1. Scapula – The scapula, or shoulder blade, is a large triangular-shaped bone that lies in
the upper back. The bone is surrounded and supported by a complex system of muscles
that work together to help you move your arm
2. Clavicle – The clavicle (collarbone) is a part of the skeletal system that connects the arm
to the body. Ligaments connect this long, thin bone to the sternum and shoulder. The
clavicle is prone to injuries, such as clavicle fracture, dislocated shoulder and separated
shoulder.
3. Humerus – The humerus is the bone in your upper arm. It’s located between your elbow
and your shoulder, and consists of several parts that allow it to move freely in different
directions. Your humerus has important functions related to both movement and support.
4. Radius – The radius is one of the two bones that make up the forearm, the other being
the ulna. It forms the radio-carpel joint at the wrist and the radio-ulnar joint at the elbow.
It is in the lateral forearm when in the anatomical position. It is the smaller of the two
bones
5. Ulna – The ulna is one of two bones that make up the forearm, the other being the radius.
It forms the elbow joint with the humerus and also articulates with the radius both
proximally and distally. It is located in the medial forearm when the arm is in the
anatomical position. It is the larger of the two forearm bones.
6. Scaphoid – The scaphoid is a unique carpal bone in shape and function. It has a three-
dimensionally oblique orientation and performs a unique function as a mechanical link
between the distal and proximal carpal rows on the radial aspect. The load mechanics of
the scaphoid play an important role in wrist function and kinematics.
7. Lunate – The lunate is a central bone in the wrist that is important for proper movement
and support of the joint (Figure 1). It works closely with the two forearm bones (the
radius and ulna) to help the wrist move. Kienbock’s disease is most common in men
between the ages of 20 and 40.
8. Triquetrum – The triquetrum is one of eight carpal bones that forms part of the wrist
joint. It is a pyramidal shaped bone that can be found in the medial side of the wrist. …
Sometimes it is also called triquetral bone, triangular bone or cuneiform bone.
9. Pisiform – The pisiform is one of eight and smallest carpal bones that forms part of the
wrist joint. It is a small pea-shaped bone. It develops in a tendon and is a sesamoid bone
The name pisiform is derived from the Latin word pisum which means “pea”. It can be
felt on the anteromedial side of the wrist.
10. Hamate – The hamate bone is one of eight carpal bones that forms part of the wrist joint.
The word hamate is derived from the Latin word hamulus which means “a little hook”. It
is a wedge-shaped bone with a hook-like process that can be found in the medial side of
the wrist. Sometimes it is also called unciform bone.
11. Capitate – the largest of the carpal bones, situated at the base of the palm of the hand and
articulating with the third metacarpal.
12. Trapezoid – The trapezoid bone (also known as the os trapezoideum or the lesser
multangular) is the smallest carpal bone in the distal row, sitting lateral to the capitate.
The trapezium and trapezoid are collectively known as the multangulars.
13. Trapezium – The trapezium is an irregular-shaped carpal bone found within the hand.
The trapezium is found within the distal row of carpal bones, and is directly adjacent to
the metacarpal bone of the thumb. … This saddle-shaped articulation is partially
responsible for the thumb’s opposable motion.
14. Metacarpal 1 – The metacarpal bone 1 is the most lateral, thickest and shortest
metacarpal bone. It is directed laterally, with its long axis being medially rotated for the
90° in comparison to the other metacarpals. Due to this axial rotation, the sides of the
bone are rotated so that its anterior surface faces medially towards the palm, the ulnar
border faces posteriorly, while the radial faces anteriorly.
15. Proximal Phalange 1 -
16. Distal Phalange 1
17. Metacarpal 2 – The metacarpal bone 2 is the one with the largest base and the longest
shaft
18. Proximal Phalange 2
19. Middle Phalange 2
20. Distal Phalange 2
21. Metacarpal 3 – The metacarpal bone 3 is located at the base of the middle finger. It
differs from the others by a styloid process that projects proximally from the laterodorsal
edge of its base.
22. Proximal Phalange 3
23. Middle Phalange 3
24. Distal Phalange 3
25. Metacarpal 4 - The metacarpal bone 4 shows a few specificities of its base.
It has two oval facets on the lateral surface via which it articulates with the base of the third
metacarpal
It features a single elongated facet on the medial surface for the articulation with the base of
the fifth metacarpal
The proximal surface is quadrangular and serves for the articulation with the hamate bone
26. Proximal Phalange 4
27. Middle Phalange 4
28. Distal Phalange 4
29. Metacarpal 5 – The metacarpal bone 5 is the smallest of all five metacarpals. Its base
slightly differs from the other metacarpals, as its lateral part is non-articular and instead
features a tubercle for the attachment of the extensor carpi ulnaris muscle. The lateral
side of the base, however, articulates with the hamate bone
30. Proximal Phalange 5
31. Middle Phalange 5
32. Distal Phalange 5

Proximal Phalange
Each hand has a total of five proximal phalanges, one in each digit. Compared to the middle
and distal phalanges, they are the largest ones. The proximal phalanx of the thumb is an
exception because it is shorter and more stout compared to the rest

Each proximal phalanx consists of three parts;

The base, which represents the expanded proximal part. It has a concave, oval-shaped
articular facet that articulates with the metacarpal head to form the metacarpophalangeal
(MCP) joint. The base also contains nonarticular tubercles for the attachment of various soft
tissue structures.
The body, which continues distally from the base. It tapers distally and has two surfaces;
dorsal and palmar. The dorsal surface is round and smooth, appearing convex in the
transverse plane. The palmar surface is flat and rough, especially on the sides where the
flexor fibrous sheaths of digits attach. The surface appears flat in the transverse plane but
concave in the sagittal plane.
The head, which represents the expanded and rounded distal part. It has a pulley-shaped
articular surface that articulates with the base of the middle phalanx to form the proximal
interphalangeal (PIP) joint. The heads consist of smooth grooves, especially on the palmar
aspects. These grooves represent the attachment points of the collateral interphalangeal
ligaments of hand.

Middle Phalange
There are four middle (intermediate) phalanges in each hand because the thumb is missing
one. They have a similar structure to the proximal ones, consisting of a base, body and head.
The base of each middle phalanx has two concave-shaped articular facets and matches the
head of the corresponding proximal phalanx. Their apposition forms the PIP joint. The heads
of the middle phalanges have a pulley-like appearance. They articulate with the bases of the
distal phalanges to form the distal interphalangeal (DIP) joints of hand.
The middle phalanges are reinforced by the same ligaments supporting the proximal ones;
digital fascial complex, collateral interphalangeal ligaments and extensor expansion of hand.
The collateral interphalangeal ligaments attach to the base and heads of the middle phalanges
to reinforce the PIP and DIP joints.
The middle phalanges are less mobile compared to the proximal phalanges. They are only
capable of flexion and extension at the PIP joints. Only the flexor digitorum superficialis
muscle attaches directly to the sides of the middle phalanges, flexing them at the PIP joints.
The remaining contributions are provided by the action of the previously mentioned muscles;
the forearm extensors, metacarpal, thenar and hypothenar muscle groups. Flexion and
 extension are transferred to the middle phalanges from the direct action of these muscles on
the proximal phalanges or via the extensor expansion of hand.

Distal Phalange
Each hand has five distal phalanges, which look shorter and slightly thicker compared to the
previous two sets. Each distal phalanx has a base, body and head. The base has a double
articular facet which matches the shape of the head of the middle phalanx. The distal
phalanges have a smooth and round dorsal surface. In contrast, their palmar surface is
wrinkled and irregular. The nonarticular heads contain an irregular, curved shaped distal
tuberosity. It serves as an anchor point for the pulps of the digits.
The distal phalanges are stabilized by the digital fascial complex, collateral interphalangeal
ligaments and extensor expansion of hand. The collateral interphalangeal ligaments attach to
the base of the distal phalanges to reinforce the DIP joints.
The distal phalanges are capable of flexion and extension at the DIP joints. Two forearm
extensors and one flexor muscle insert directly into the bases of the distal phalanges,
permitting these actions. These include flexor digitorum profundus, flexor pollicis longus and
extensor pollicis longus. The previously mentioned muscle groups acting on the proximal
and middle phalanges also act indirectly on the distal ones via the extensor expansion of
hand.

Lower Extremity (31 x 2 = 62)

1. Hip (Ilium, Ischium, Pubis) – The hip bone is comprised of the three parts; the ilium,
pubis and ischium. Prior to puberty, the triradiate cartilage separates these parts – and
fusion only begins at the age of 15-17. Together, the ilium, pubis and ischium form a
cup-shaped socket known as the acetabulum (literal meaning in Latin is ‘vinegar cup’).
2. Femur – The femur is the longest, heaviest, and strongest bone in the human body. The
main function of the femur is weight bearing and stability of gait. … The capsular
ligament is a strong thick sheath that wraps around the acetabulum periosteum and
proximal femur holding the femoral head within the acetabulum.
3. Patella – The patella is a small bone located in front of the knee joint — where the
thighbone (femur) and shinbone (tibia) meet. It protects the knee and connects the
muscles in the front of the thigh to the tibia. … The patella covers and protects the knee
joint.
4. Tibia – also called shin, inner and larger of the two bones of the lower leg in vertebrates
—the other is the fibula. In humans the tibia forms the lower half of the knee joint above
and the inner protuberance of the ankle below. … It is attached to the fibula throughout
its length by an interosseous membrane.
5. Fibula – The fibula or calf bone is a leg bone on the lateral side of the tibia, to which it is
connected above and below. It is the smaller of the two bones and, in proportion to its
length, the most slender of all the long bones.
6. Talus – The talus is the bone that makes up the lower part of the ankle joint (the tibia and
fibula make up the upper part). The ankle joint allows your foot to move up and down.
 The talus also sits above the heel bone (calcaneus). … The talus bone sits between the
bones of the lower leg and the calcaneus (heel bone).
7. Calcaneus – The calcaneus (heel bone) is the largest of the tarsal bones in the foot. It lies
at the back of the foot (hindfoot) below the three bones that make up the ankle joint.
These three bones are the: Tibia — shinbone.
8. Navicular – The navicular bone is one of the seven bones which make up the tarsus of
the Ankle and Foot. It is located on the medial aspect of the foot, next to the cuboid bone,
anterior to the head of the talus and posterior to the cuneiform bones. It is one of the five
bones of the midfoot.
9. Medial Cuneiform – The medial cuneiform (also known as first cuneiform) is the largest
of the cuneiforms. It is situated at the medial side of the foot, anterior to the navicular
bone and posterior to the base of the first metatarsal. Lateral to it is the intermediate
cuneiform.
10. Middle Cuneiform – The middle cuneiform is the smallest of the three cuneiform bones
and articulates proximally with the navicular and distally with the base of the second
metatarsal. Medial and lateral surfaces are partly articular with the medial and lateral
cuneiforms, respectively. … Middle and lateral cuneiform anomalies are rare
11. Lateral Cuneiform – There are three cuneiform bones: The medial cuneiform (also
known as first cuneiform) is the largest of the cuneiforms. … Lateral to it is the
intermediate cuneiform. It articulates with four bones: the navicular, second cuneiform,
and first and second metatarsals.
12. Cuboid – The cuboid is one of the seven bones which make up the tarsus of the Ankle
and Foot and it is one of the five bones of the midfoot. It is located on the lateral aspect
of the foot, anterior to the calcaneus, next to the navicular and lateral cuneiform bones,
and posterior to the 4th and 5th metatarsal..
13. Metatarsal 1-
14. Proximal Phalange 1
15. Distal Phalange 1
16. Metatarsal 2
17. Proximal Phalange 2
18. Middle Phalange 2
19. Distal Phalange 2
20. Metatarsal 3
21. Proximal Phalange 3
22. Middle Phalange 3
23. Distal Phalange 3
24. Metatarsal 4
25. Proximal Phalange 4
26. Middle Phalange 4
27. Distal Phalange 4
28. Metatarsal 5
29. Proximal Phalange 5
30. Middle Phalange 5
 31. Distal Phalange 5
The bones of the foot provide mechanical support for the soft tissues; helping the foot withstand
the weight of the body whilst standing and in motion.
They can be divided into three groups:
Tarsals – a set of seven irregularly shaped bones. They are situated proximally in the foot in the
ankle area.
Metatarsals – connect the phalanges to the tarsals. There are five in number – one for each digit.
Phalanges – the bones of the toes. Each toe has three phalanges – proximal, intermediate, and
distal (except the big toe, which only has two phalanges).
The foot can also be divided up into three regions: (i) Hindfoot – talus and calcaneus; (ii)
Midfoot – navicular, cuboid, and cuneiforms; and (iii) Forefoot – metatarsals and phalanges.

Tarsals
The tarsal bones of the foot are organised into three rows: proximal, intermediate, and distal.

Proximal Group (Hindfoot)

The proximal tarsal bones are the talus and the calcaneus. These comprise the hindfoot, forming
the bony framework around the proximal ankle and heel.

Talus
The talus is the most superior of the tarsal bones. It transmits the weight of the entire body to the
foot. It has three articulations:
Superiorly – ankle joint – between the talus and the bones of the leg (the tibia and fibula).
Inferiorly – subtalar joint – between the talus and calcaneus.
Anteriorly – talonavicular joint – between the talus and the navicular.
The main function of the talus is to transmit forces from the tibia to the heel bone (known as the
calcaneus). It is wider anteriorly compared to posteriorly which provides additional stability to
the ankle.
Whilst numerous ligaments attach to the talus, no muscles originate from or insert onto it. This
means there is a high risk of avascular necrosis as the vascular supply is dependent on fascial
structures.

Calcaneus
The calcaneus is the largest tarsal bone and lies underneath the talus where it constitutes the heel.
It has two articulations:
Superiorly – subtalar (talocalcaneal) joint – between the calcaneus and the talus.
Anteriorly – calcaneocuboid joint – between the calcaneus and the cuboid.
It protrudes posteriorly and takes the weight of the body as the heel hits the ground when
walking. The posterior aspect of the calcaneus is marked by calcaneal tuberosity, to which the
Achilles tendon attaches.

Intermediate Group (Midfoot)

The intermediate row of tarsal bones contains one bone, the navicular (given its name because it
is shaped like a boat).
Positioned medially, it articulates with the talus posteriorly, all three cuneiform bones anteriorly,
and the cuboid bone laterally. On the plantar surface of the navicular, there is a tuberosity for the
attachment of part of the tibialis posterior tendon.

Distal Group (Midfoot)

In the distal row, there are four tarsal bones – the cuboid and the three cuneiforms. These bones
articulate with the metatarsals of the foot
The cuboid is furthest lateral, lying anterior to the calcaneus and behind the fourth and fifth
metatarsals. As its name suggests, it is cuboidal in shape. The inferior (plantar) surface of the
cuboid is marked by a groove for the tendon of fibularis longus.
The three cuneiforms (lateral, intermediate (or middle) and medial) are wedge shaped bones.
They articulate with the navicular posteriorly, and the metatarsals anteriorly. The shape of the
bones helps form a transverse arch across the foot. They are also the attachment point for several
muscles:
Medial cuneiform – tibialis anterior, (part of) tibialis posterior and fibularis longus
Lateral cuneiform – flexor hallucis brevis

Metatarsals
The metatarsals are located in the forefoot, between the tarsals and phalanges. They are
numbered I-V (medial to lateral).
Each metatarsal has a similar structure. They are convex dorsally and consist of a head, neck,
shaft, and base (distal to proximal).
They have three or four articulations:
Proximally – tarsometatarsal joints – between the metatarsal bases and the tarsal bones.
Laterally – intermetatarsal joint(s) – between the metatarsal and the adjacent metatarsals.
Distally – metatarsophalangeal joint – between the metatarsal head and the proximal phalanx.

Phalanges
The phalanges are the bones of the toes. The second to fifth toes all have proximal, middle, and
distal phalanges. The great toe has only 2; proximal and distal phalanges.
They are similar in structure to the metatarsals, each phalanx consists of a base, shaft, and head.

The Muscular System

50 various muscles

Muscle disorders
Muscle disorders may cause weakness, pain, loss of movement and even paralysis. The range of
problems that affect muscles are collectively known as myopathy. Common muscle problems
include:
Injury or overuse, including sprains or strains, cramps, tendonitis and bruising
Genetic problems, such as muscular dystrophy
Inflammation, such as myositis
Diseases of nerves that affect muscles, such as multiple sclerosis
Conditions that cause muscle weakness, such as metabolic, endocrine or toxic disorders; for
example, thyroid, and adrenal diseases, alcoholism, pesticide poisoning, medications (steroids,
statins) and myasthenia gravis
Cancers, such as soft tissue sarcoma.

Muscles of the head and neck

The muscles in this area control movement of the face, head, and neck. Examples include:
Zygomaticus: This muscle is involved in facial expression and lifts the corners of your mouth,
such as when you smile.
Masseter: The masseter is found in the jaw and is used to close your mouth and to chew food.
Eye (extraocular) muscles: This is a group of muscles that controls the movements of your eyes
as well as the opening and closing of your eyelids.
Muscles of the tongue: This group of muscles help to elevate and lower the tongue as well as
help it move in and out.
Sternocleidomastoid: This is the major muscle that’s involved when you rotate or tilt your head
to the side. It’s also involved in tilting your head forward.

Muscles of the trunk

These muscles are located in the area of your torso and abdomen. Some examples are:
Erector spinae: These muscles are involved in supporting your spine and enabling movements
such as bending, arching, and twisting of the spine.
Oblique muscles: This group of muscles, which includes the external and internal obliques,
helps you to bend to the side or twist your body at the waist.
Intercostal muscles: The intercostal muscles are located around your ribs and help facilitate
inhaling and exhaling.
Diaphragm: The diaphragm separates your torso from your abdomen. It’s also involved in
breathing, contracting when you inhale, and relaxing when you exhale.
Levator ani: This muscle group supports the organs and tissues around your pelvis. It’s also
important for urination and bowel movements.

Muscles of the upper extremities

This includes the muscles that move your shoulders, arms, wrists, and hands. Examples of
important muscles in this area include:
Trapezius: This muscle is used for several movements, including tilting your head back, raising
your shoulders, and moving your shoulder blades together.
Pectoralis major: The pectoralis major is located in your upper chest and is utilized for
rotational, vertical, and lateral movements of your arm.
Deltoid: The deltoid works to lift or rotate your arm at the shoulder.
Biceps brachii: The biceps brachii flexes the forearm. When this happens, your elbow bends.
Triceps brachii: The triceps brachii extends the forearm, straightening the elbow.

Muscles of the lower extremities

This area involves the muscles that move your legs and feet. Some examples that you may be
familiar with are:

Gluteus maximus: This muscle is used for movement of your hips and thighs. It’s important for
maintaining posture, standing up from a sitting position, or going up stairs.
Quadriceps: This is actually a group of muscles that are located at the front of your thigh and
work together to straighten your leg at the knee.
Hamstrings: Your hamstrings are located in the back part of your leg. This muscle group helps
to extend your thigh and to bend your leg at the knee.
Tibialis anterior: You use this muscle when you raise the sole of your foot from the ground
Soleus: The soleus works to lower the sole of your foot to the ground. It’s important for
maintaining your posture while you’re walking.
Smooth muscle
The function of smooth muscle can vary depending on where it’s found in the body. Let’s look at
some functions of smooth muscle by system:
Digestive system: The contractions of smooth muscle help to push food through your digestive
tract.
Respiratory system: Smooth muscle tissue can cause your airways to widen or narrow.
Cardiovascular system: Smooth muscle in the walls of your blood vessels aids in the flow of
blood and also helps to regulate your blood pressure.
Renal system: Smooth muscle helps to regulate the flow of urine from your bladder.
Reproductive system: In the female reproductive system, smooth muscle is involved in
contractions during pregnancy. In the male reproductive system, it helps to propel sperm.

Cardiac muscle
Cardiac muscle allows your heart to beat. A heartbeat is generated in response to an electrical
impulse.
Cardiac muscle contracts in response to this electrical signal, which is initiated by a special type
of cell called a pacemaker cell.

The electrical signal travels from the upper to the lower part of your heart. Because cardiac
muscle cells are closely connected to one another, they’re able to contract in a coordinated wave-
like fashion that forms the heartbeat.

What are the main functions of the muscular system?

Muscles play a part in every function of the body. The muscular system is made up of over 600
muscles. These include three muscle types: smooth, skeletal, and cardiac.
Only skeletal muscles are voluntary, meaning you can control them consciously. Smooth and
cardiac muscles act involuntarily.
Each muscle type in the muscular system has a specific purpose. You’re able to walk because of
your skeletal muscles. You can digest because of your smooth muscles. And your heart beats
because of your cardiac muscle.
The different muscle types also work together to make these functions possible. For instance,
when you run (skeletal muscles), your heart pumps harder (cardiac muscle), and causes you to
breathe heavier (smooth muscles).
1. Mobility
Your skeletal muscles are responsible for the movements you make. Skeletal muscles are
attached to your bones and partly controlled by the central nervous system (CNS).
You use your skeletal muscles whenever you move. Fast-twitch skeletal muscles cause
short bursts of speed and strength. Slow-twitch muscles function better for longer
movements.
2. Circulation
The involuntary cardiac and smooth muscles help your heart beat and blood flow through
your body by producing electrical impulses. The cardiac muscle (myocardium) is found
in the walls of the heart. It’s controlled by the autonomic nervous system responsible for
most bodily functions.
The myocardium also has one central nucleus like a smooth muscle.
Your blood vessels are made up of smooth muscles, and also controlled by the autonomic
nervous system.
3. Respiration
Your diaphragm is the main muscle at work during quiet breathing. Heavier breathing,
like what you experience during exercise, may require accessory muscles to help the
diaphragm. These can include the abdominal, neck, and back muscles.
4. Digestion
Digestion is controlled by smooth muscles found in your gastrointestinal tract. This
comprises the:
 Mouth
 Esophagus
 Stomach
 Small and large intestines
 Rectum
 Anus
The digestive system also includes the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder.
Your smooth muscles contract and relax as food passes through your body during
digestion. These muscles also help push food out of your body through defecation, or
vomiting when you’re sick.
5. Urination
Smooth and skeletal muscles make up the urinary system. The urinary system includes
the:
 Kidneys
 Bladder
 Ureters
 Urethra
 Penis or vagina
  Prostate
All the muscles in your urinary system work together so you can urinate. The dome of
your bladder is made of smooth muscles. You can release urine when those muscles
tighten. When they relax, you can hold in your urine.
6. Childbirth
Smooth muscles are found in the uterus. During pregnancy, these muscles grow and
stretch as the baby grows. When a woman goes into labor, the smooth muscles of the
uterus contract and relax to help push the baby through the vagina.
7. Vision
Your eye sockets are made up of six skeletal muscles that help you move your eyes. And
the internal muscles of your eyes are made up of smooth muscles. All these muscles work
together to help you see. If you damage these muscles, you may impair your vision.
8. Stability
The skeletal muscles in your core help protect your spine and help with stability. Your
core muscle group includes the abdominal, back, and pelvic muscles. This group is also
known as the trunk. The stronger your core, the better you can stabilize your body. The
muscles in your legs also help steady you.
9. Posture
Your skeletal muscles also control posture. Flexibility and strength are keys to
maintaining proper posture. Stiff neck muscles, weak back muscles, or tight hip muscles
can throw off your alignment. Poor posture can affect parts of your body and lead to joint
pain and weaker muscles. These parts include the:
 Shoulders
 Spine
 Hips
 Knees