UNIT I

BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION AND BIO SENSORS

BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION:

 Terminology of medicine and medical devices

 Generalized medical instrumentation system

 Alternative operational modes

 Medical measurement constraints

 Classification of biomedical instruments

 Biostatistics

 Regulations of medical devices.

BIO POTENTIAL & BIO SENSORS:

 Origin of bio potential and its propagation

 Electrode–skin interface

 Half cell potential

 Types of electrodes and its application. Recording problems

 Measurement with two electrodes.

BIOSENSOR:

 Need of sensors

 Working principle of biosensor

 Various types of biosensors and its applications

 Bio transducers

 Bio interface.

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 PART A

1. How Half cell potential (Ehc) is generated and state how it is recorded? (N/D 2019)
(or) Define Half cell potential. (N/D 2015) (or) Write an expression to calculate Half-
cell potential. (N/D 2017)
2. Draw an electrical equivalent circuit for an electrode – electrolyte interface. (N/D
2019) (or) Draw the equivalent circuit for a Biopotential electrode in contact with
an electrolyte. (A/M 2017), (N/D 2019)
3. What are the four main factors involved in the movement of ions across the cell
membrane in the steady state condition? (N/D 2019, A/M 2018, A/M 2017)
4. Mention the advantages of digital mode measurements and displays. (A/M 2019)
5. Give the different ways in which medical instruments are classified. (A/M 2019)
6. What is the velocity of propagation of the action potential in the bundle branches
following the AV node? (A/M 2019)
7. “Ag/Agcl electrodes are preferred more than the other metal electrodes for bio
electric measurements” justify the statement. (A/M 2019)
8. Determine the diffusion potential across the membrane if the K+ concentration is
5x10-6 moles/cm3 on one side and 9.6x10-6 moles/cm3 on the other side. (A/M 2019)
9. What is Bioelectric potential? (N/D 2018) (or ) Define Bio potential. (N/D 2015)
10. List the salient features of needle electrodes. (N/D 2018)

PART B
1. Explain the generation of action potential and resting potential at cellular level.
(A/M 2019) (or) Discuss in detail about action potential and draw its waveform.
(N/D 2019) (or) describe the action potential and resting potential in detail and the
propagation of action potential with diagrams. (A/M 2019) (or) Describe the action
potential and resting potential in detail and the propagation of action potential
with diagrams. (N/D 2018)
2. Discuss the different types of electrodes used in the measurement of Bio-potential
with neat diagram. (A/M 2019, N/D 2019), (A/M 2018) (or) Compare the electrical
equivalent circuit of metal microelectrode and glass micropipette electrode. (N/D
2019) Explain any four types of surface electrodes in detail. (N/D 2018, 19) (or) How
a metal micro electrode is formed? Draw its electrical equivalent circuit and
explain. (N/D 2018, 19) (or) Describe the electrical properties of metal and glass
microelectrodes with neat illustration. (A/M 2018)

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3. Differentiate between polarizable electrodes and non polarizable electrodes. Give
examples for each. (A/M 2019) (or) Explain the polarizable and non-polarizable
electrode. Give examples. (N/D 2019) (or) Elucidate electrode – electrolyte
interface and the concept of half- cell potential. (A/M 2019) (or) Explain the
polarizable and non polarizable electrode. Give examples. (N/D 2018) (or) Why is
Ag/Agcl electrode most commonly used in bio-potential recording? (A/M 2018) (or)
(i) Define half cell potential (ii). What are polarizable and non- polarizable
electrode. (M/J 2016)
4. Present the modelling of the electrode – skin interface and explain. (A/M 2019) (or)
(i) How does the electrode – electrolyte skin interface influence the behaviour of
the practical electrodes? Explain. (A/M 2018) (or) With neat sketch detail the
electrode – skin interface model for electrode and electrolyte interface. (N/D 2017)
(or) Draw the diagram of electrode tissue interface for surface electrodes with
electrode jelly. Explain metal electrolyte and electrolyte skin interface. (A.M 2017)
5. Explain the construction and working principle of blood glucose sensor with
diagram. (N/D 2019) (or) describe the principle of biosensor used for blood
glucose monitoring. (A/M 2019) (or) Briefly explain about the working principle and
types of Biosensors.
6. Explain with block diagram, the components of a generalized medical
instrumentation system. (A/M 2019) (or) Explain the component of a biomedical
instrument system with its block diagram. (M/J 2016).

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 PART A

1. How Half cell potential (Ehc) is generated and state how it is recorded? (N/D 2019)
(or) Define Half cell potential. (N/D 2015) (or) Write an expression to calculate Half-
cell potential. (N/D 2017)
The potential developed at the electrode of each half cell in an electrochemical cell.
(or) In an electrochemical cell, the overall potential is the total potential calculated from
the potential of two half cells.
Half cell potential is defined as the voltage developed at an electrode- electrolyte
interface. It is also called as Electrode Potential.
−KT
V r= ln ¿ ¿
q
Vr=resting potential
K= Boltzmann’s constant=1.38x10-23J/K
T=Absolute temperature of the cell in Kelvin.
Q=charge of electron= 1.602x10-19
[K+]=concentration of potassium
I and O indicate inside the cell and outside the cell respectively.

2. Draw an electrical equivalent circuit for an electrode – electrolyte interface. (N/D

2019) (or) Draw the equivalent circuit for a Biopotential electrode in contact with
an electrolyte. (A/M 2017), (N/D 2019)

Ehc – Half-cell potential

Rd and Cd – represent the impedance associated with the electrode-electrolyte interface
Rs – series resistance.

3. What are the four main factors involved in the movement of ions across the cell
membrane in the steady state condition? (N/D 2019, A/M 2018, A/M 2017)
 The concentration of ions
When there is an imbalance in the concentration, the ions move from the region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration across the cell membrane through

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 diffusion so the balance in concentration needs to be maintained across the cell
membrane.

 The opposing electric field

If there is an imbalance in the charges across the cell membrane then a force is
developed by the difference in electric potential which drives the diffusion of ions till the
time the charges are balanced on both sides of the cell membrane.

 Permeability of ions
The permeability of ions is affected by the temperature. The permeability increases with
increase in the temperature.

 Active transport
The active transport which opposes the concentration gradient is responsible for the
movement of ions from the region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration across the cell membrane in the steady-state.

4. Mention the advantages of digital mode measurements and displays. (A/M 2019)
 The digital instruments display the reading in the numeric form which reduces the error.
 The digital output is obtained by the instrument which acts as an input for the memorable
devices like floppy, recorder, printer etc.
 The power consumption is less in the digital instruments.

5. Give the different ways in which medical instruments are classified. (A/M 2019)
The Federal Drug Administration (FDA) classifies medical devices. There are
three main classifications Class I, Class II, and Class III. The assignment of a
classification for a device depends upon the level of risk that is associated with the
device.

There are a number of factors that determine how a medical device is classified,
these include:
 The length of time for which the device will be used
 If the device is surgically invasive or not
 If the device is active or surgically implantable
 If the device contains medicinal substances

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 Class I Devices - Lowest level of risk of all medical devices and lowest level of
regulatory control. Examples: elastic bandages, dental floss and enemas

Class II Devices - Simple devices, more complicated than Class I devices. slightly
higher risk than Class I devices and require more stringent regulatory controls to provide
assurance of their effectiveness and safety. Examples: pregnancy testing kits and
powered wheelchairs.

Class III Devices - Most complex devices. Highest risk and require more stringent
regulatory controls to provide assurance of their effectiveness and safety. Examples:
implantable pacemakers and breast implants.

6. What is the velocity of propagation of the action potential in the bundle branches
following the AV node? (A/M 2019)
 The action potentials generated by the SA node spread throughout the atria primarily
by cell-to-cell conduction at a velocity of about 0.5 m/sec.
 The only pathway available for action potentials to enter the ventricles is through a
specialized region of cells (atrioventricular node, or AV node) located in the inferior-
posterior region of the intra atrial septum.
 The AV node is a highly specialized conducting tissue (cardiac, not neural in origin)
that slows the impulse conduction considerably (to about 0.05 m/sec) thereby
allowing sufficient time for complete atrial depolarization and contraction (systole)
prior to ventricular depolarization and contraction.

7. “Ag/Agcl electrodes are preferred more than the other metal electrodes for bio
electric measurements” justify the statement. (A/M 2019)
 The electrodes were fabricated from solid materials such as silver, brass coated with
silver, tin and nickel. Most biomonitoring electrodes are silver/silver chloride sensors
which are fabricated by coating a thin layer of silver on plastic substrates and the
outer layer of silver is converted to silver chloride.
 The principle of silver/silver chloride sensors operation is the conversion of ion
current at the surface of human tissues to electron current to be delivered through the
lead wire to the instrument to read.
 The gel contains free chloride ions such that the charge can be carried through the
electrolyte, therefore the electrolyte can be considered as conductive for ion current
as the human tissues.

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  When the ion current exists, the silver atoms in the electrode oxidize and discharge
cations to the electrolyte and the electrons carry charge through the lead wire.
 At the same time, the chloride ions which are anions in the electrolyte travel toward
the electrode and they are reduced as they bond with silver of the electrode resulting
in silver chloride and free electrons to deliver to the lead wire.
 The reaction allows current to pass from electrolyte to electrode and the electron
current passes through the lead wire for the instrument to read.
 When there is an uneven distribution of cations and anions, there will be a small
voltage called half-cell potential associated with the current. In the DC system that is
used by the ECG and EEG instruments, the difference between the half-cell potential
and the zero potential is shown as DC offset which is an undesirable characteristic.
 Silver/silver chloride is a popular choice of biological electrodes due to its low half-cell
potential of approximately 220 mV and the lower of the impedance of the electrode by
silver chloride.

8. Determine the diffusion potential across the membrane if the K+ concentration is

5x10-6 moles/cm3 on one side and 9.6x10-6 moles/cm3 on the other side. (A/M 2019)

9. What is Bioelectric potential? (N/D 2018) (or ) Define Bio potential. (N/D 2015)
A voltage produced by a tissue of the body, particularly muscle tissue during a
contraction. Electrocardiography depends on measurement of changing potentials in
contracting heart muscles. Electromyography and electroencephalography function
similarly in the diagnosis of neuromuscular and brain disorders respectively.

10. List the salient features of needle electrodes. (N/D 2018)

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  A fine wire through which electrical current may flow when attached to a power
source; used to carry high frequency electrical currents that create heat or destroy
diseased tissue (called radiofrequency ablation) or seal blood vessels.
 There are two types of needle electrodes: a simple straight needle; and a straight,
hollow needle that contains several retractable electrodes that extend when needed.
 Needle electrodes may also be a part of devices that monitor electrical activity for
diagnostic purposes such as in the performance of electromyography and nerve
conduction studies.

11. Justify “Electrode impedance is frequency dependent”. (A/M 2018)

According to the findings, the electrode-skin contact impedance greatly decreased
over frequency within 10Hz - 1MHz. At low frequencies (<1 kHz), the contact
impedance is very large (approximately 100 kohms) and may cause measurement
errors due to the contact impedance imbalance between two measuring electrodes.
12. Define action and Resting Potential. (N/D 2017)
Action potential: it is defined as the change in electrical potential associated with
the passage of an impulse along the membrane of a cell.
Resting potential: It is defined as the electric potential of an excitable cell relative
to its surroundings when not stimulated or involved in passage of an impulse. It ranges
from -60 mV to -100 mV.

13. What are Polarisable and Non-polarizable electrode?(or) What is a polarisable

electrode? (M/J 2016) (or) What are non-polarizable electrodes? Give any two
examples. (N/D 2015)
Perfectly Polarizable Electrodes:

Electrodes in which no actual charge crosses the electrode-electrolyte interface

when a current is applied. The current across the interface is a displacement current and
the electrode behaves like a capacitor. Over potential is due concentration.
Example: Platinum electrode
Perfectly non-polarizable electrode:
Electrodes in which current passes freely across the electrode-electrolyte interface,
requiring no energy to make the transition. These electrodes see no over potentials.
Example 1: Ag/AgCl Electrode.
Example 2: Ag-AgCl is used in recording while Pt is used in stimulation.
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14. What is absolute refractory period? (M/J 2016)
Absolute refractory period. :
The period immediately following the firing of a nerve fibre when it cannot be
stimulated no matter how great a stimulus is applied—called also absolute refractory
phase.
Relative refractory period. :
The period shortly after the firing of a nerve fiber when partial repolarization has
occurred and a greater than normal stimulus can stimulate a second response.

15. Why electrode paste is applied during recording of bio-signals? (M/J 2016)
Conductive gel is extremely useful when electrodes are used to record electrical
activity on the surface of the skin. The outside layer of skin is really made up of dead
skin cells. These skin cells act as a good resistor, meaning that it makes detecting
electrical activity difficult for EMG electrodes.
The dry outer skin of the body is highly non-conductive, and will not establish a good
electrical contact with an electrode. The skin should therefore be washed thoroughly and
rubbed briskly to remove some of the outer cells. This area should then be coated with
an electrode paste. The purpose of the electrode paste is to make the skin electrically
conductive.

16. What type of electrode is used to measure bioelectric potentials of highly localized
extracellular region? (M/J 2016)
Surface electrodes are used to measure the potentials available from the surface of the
skin and are used to sense the potentials from heart, brain and nerves.
Types:
 Metal plate electrode
 Suction cup electrode
 Adhesive tape electrode
 Multipoint electrode
 Floating electrode.

17. Mention the types of microelectrodes. What are their applications? (M/J 2016)
a) Metal,
b) Micropipette,
c) Thin metal film on micropipette.
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 Application: to study bioelectric signals at the organism, organ, or tissue level but not at
the cellular level.

18. List the problems encountered during recording process. (N/D 2015)
 Inherent noise in electronics equipment
 Ambient noise
 Motion artifact
 Inherent instability of signal

19. What is the need of sensors?

Sensors are widely used in many different applications, and sensor technology
has become a basic enabling technology in many instances. The rapid increase in the
interest in sensors has been driven by numerous applications, such as intelligent
manufacturing processing, in which sensors can provide a large benefit.

20. What is meant by biosensors?

A biosensor is an analytical device, used for the detection of a chemical
substance, that combines a biological component with a physicochemical detector.
Applications
Biosensors are devices comprising a biological element and a
physiochemical detector that are used to detect analytes. These instruments have a wide
range ofapplications ranging from clinical through to environmental and agricultural. The
devices are also used in the food industry.

21. Define the working principle of biosensors.

Biosensors are operated based on the principle of signal transduction. The
transducer measures this interaction and outputs a signal. The intensity of the signal
output is proportional to the concentration of the analyte.

22. Explain all or nothing law.

The all-or-none law is the principle that the strength by which a nerve or muscle
fiber responds to a stimulus is independent of the strength of the stimulus. If that
stimulus exceeds the threshold potential, the nerve or muscle fiber will give a complete
response; otherwise, there is no response.
23. What is meant by Biointerface?

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 A Bio-interface is the region of contact between a biomolecule, cell, biological
tissue or living organism or organic material considered living with another biomaterial or
inorganic/organic material.
The motivation for biointerface science stems from the urgent need to increase
the understanding of interactions between biomolecules and surfaces. The behavior of
complex macromolecular systems at materials interfaces are important in the fields
of biology, biotechnology, diagnostics, and medicine.

24. What is transducer?

Convert biological information into a measurable and quantified electrical/ optical/
physical signal. It converts one form of energy into another.

25. What is Bio transducer?

A Bio transducer is the recognition-transduction component of a biosensor
system. It consists of two intimately coupled parts; a bio-recognition layer and a
physicochemical transducer, which acting together converts a biochemical signal to an
electronic or optical signal.

26. What is sensor and actuator?

Sensor: Convert a physical parameter into an electrical output
Actuator:Convert electrical signal into a physical output. Things we measure:
dimensional/ mechanical changes, chemical changes, electrical changes, thermal
changes.

PART B
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1. Explain the generation of action potential and resting potential at cellular level.
(A/M 2019) (or) Discuss in detail about action potential and draw its waveform.
(N/D 2019) (or) describe the action potential and resting potential in detail and the
propagation of action potential with diagrams. (A/M 2019) (or) Describe the action
potential and resting potential in detail and the propagation of action potential
with diagrams. (N/D 2018)
 Bioelectric potentials are generated at a cellular level and the source of these potentials
is ionic in nature. A cell consists of an ionic conductor separated from the outside
environment by a semi-permeable membrane which acts as a selective ionic filter to the
ions. This means that some ions can pass through the membrane freely where as others
cannot do so.
 All living matter is composed of cells of different types. Human cells may vary from 1
micron to 100 microns in diameter, from 1 mm to 1 m in length, and have a typical
membrane thickness of 0.01 micron. Surrounding the cells of the body are body fluids,
which are ionic and which provide a conducting medium for electric potentials.
 The principal ions involved with the phenomena of producing cell potentials are sodium
(Na+), potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl–). The membrane of excitable cells readily
permits the entry of K+ and Cl–but impedes the flow of Na+ even though there may be a
very high concentration gradiant of sodium across the cell membrane. This results in the
concentration of the sodium ion more on the outside of the cell membrane than on the
inside.
 Since sodium is a positive ion, in its resting state, a cell has a negative charge along the
inner surface of its membrane and a positive charge along the outer portion. The
unequal charge distribution is a result of certain electrochemical reactions and processes
occurring within the living cell and the potential measured is called the Resting Potential.
 The cell in such a condition is said to be Polarized. A decrease in this resting membrane
potential difference is called depolarization. The distribution of positively charged ions on
the outer surface and negatively charged ions inside the cell membrane results in the
difference of potential across it and the cell becomes, in effect, a tiny biological battery.
 Experiments have shown that the internal resting potential within a cell is approximately
–90 mV with reference to the outside of the cell. When the cell is excited or stimulated,
the outer side of the cell membrane becomes momentarily negative with respect to the
interior. This process is called Depolarization and the cell potential changes to
approximately +20 mV.

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 Repolarization then takes place a short time later when the cell regains its normal state
in which the inside of the membrane is again negative with respect to the outside.
Repolarization is necessary in order to re-establish the resting potential. This discharging
and recharging of the cell produces the voltage waveforms which can be recorded by
suitable methods using microelectrodes. A typical cell potential waveform so recorded is
shown in Figure.

A typical cell potential waveform

 The wave of excitation while propagating in the muscle causes its contraction. The
contraction wave always follows the excitation wave because of its lower velocity. This
phenomenon is found with the skeletal muscles, the heart muscle and the smooth
muscles. In its turn, every contraction (movement) of a muscle results in the production
of an electric voltage.
 This voltage occurs in the muscle in such a way that the moving muscle section is
always negative with respect to its surroundings. These voltages are called action
potentials because they are generated by the action of the muscles. After complete
contraction, repolarization takes place resulting in the relaxation of the muscle and its
returning to the original state.
 Figure shows electrical activity associated with one contraction in a muscle. The currents
involved in bioelectricity are unlike the currents involved in electronics. Bioelectric
currents are due to positive and negative ion movement within a conductive fluid. The

13
 ions possess finite mass and encounter resistance to movement within the fluid for they
have limited speeds.

Electrical activity associated with one contraction in a muscle

 The cell action potential, therefore, shows a finite rise time and fall time. It may be noted
that a cell may be caused to depolarize and then depolarize by subjecting the cell
membrane to an ionic current. However, unless a stimulus above a certain minimum
value is applied, the cell will not be depolarized and no action potential is generated. This
value is known as the stimulus threshold.
 After a cell is stimulated, a finite period of time is required for the cell to return to its pre-
stimulus state. This is because the energy associated with the action potential is
developed from metabolic processes within the cell which take time for completion. This
period is known as refractory period.
 The bioelectric signals of clinical interest, which are often recorded, are produced by the
coordinated activity of large groups of cells. In this type of synchronized excitation of
many cells, the charges tend to migrate through the body fluids towards the still
unexcited cell areas. Such charge migration constitutes an electric current and hence
sets up potential differences between various portions of the body, including its outer
surface.

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 Such potential differences can be conveniently picked up by placing conducting plates
(electrodes) at any two points on the surface of the body and measured with the help of
a sensitive instrument. These potentials are highly significant for diagnosis and therapy.

2. Discuss the different types of electrodes used in the measurement of Bio-potential

with neat diagram. (A/M 2019, N/D 2019), (A/M 2018) (or) Compare the electrical
equivalent circuit of metal microelectrode and glass micropipette electrode. (N/D
2019) Explain any four types of surface electrodes in detail. (N/D 2018, 19) (or) How
a metal micro electrode is formed? Draw its electrical equivalent circuit and
explain. (N/D 2018, 19) (or) Describe the electrical properties of metal and glass
microelectrodes with neat illustration. (A/M 2018) (or) Briefly describe the details
of surface, needle and depth electrodes with neat sketch. (N/D 2017) (or) Draw the
equivalent diagram of metal microelectrode interface with cell. (N/D 2017)
Electrode:
 Devices that convert ionic potentials into electronic potentials are called electrode.
 The interface of metallic ions in solution with their associated metals results in an
electrical potential is called the electrode potential.
 Electrode potential is a result of the difference in diffusion rates of ions into and out of
the metal.
Types of electrodes:
i) Micro Electrodes: These are used to measure the bioelectric potential near or within a
single cell. These are also called as intracellular electrode.
ii) Depth and needle electrodes: These are used to measure the bioelectric potentials
of the highly localized extracellular regions in brain or bioelectric potentials from a
specific group of muscles.
iii) Surface electrodes: These are used to measure the potentials available from the
surface of the skin and are used to sense the potentials from heart, brain and nerves.
i) Microelectrodes:
 Microelectrode is used to measure the bioelectric potential near or within a single cell.
These are called intracellular electrode.
 Microelectrodes are divided into metallic and non metallic. Non-metallic
microelectrodes is called micropipette.
 When a microelectrode is used to measure the potential of the cell, it is located within
the cell, while the reference electrode is situated outside the cell. The size of the
electrode is determined by the size of the cell.
a) Metal Microelectrodes:
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 Metal microelectrode are formed by electrically etching the tip of a fine tungsten is
called electro pointing. The metal micro electrode are coated almost to the micro tip with
an insulating material to reduce impedance.
The measurement of bioelectric potentials requires two electrodes, the
instantaneous potentials of the microelectrode and the reference (indifferent) electrode.
 R A= Resistance of the connecting wire which is negligible
R S=resistance of the shaft of the microelectrode which is negligible
 R FA , RWA ,C WA = impedance of the microelectrode tip-intra cellular fluid interface
 R¿ = Resistance of the intracellular fluid
 RB = Resistance of the wire connected to the reference electrode which is
negligible
 R FB , RWB ,C WB = Impedance of the reference electrode-extracellular fluid interface
 R EX = Resistance of the extracellular fluid, C D is the distributed capacitance
betweenthe insulated shaft of the microelectrode and the extracellular fluid.
The capacitance between the tip of the microelectrode and the intracellular fluid is
negligible because the potential difference across it does not change.

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 Figure: Metal microelectrode

b) Micropipette
 The Nonmetallic micropipette consists of a glass micropipette whose tip is1
micrometer. The micropipette is filled with 3M KCL.

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 A thin, flexible metal wire from chloride silver, stainless steel or tungsten is inserted
into the stem of the micropipette.

Figure: Micropipette electrode.

 E A – potential between the metal wire and electrolyte filled in the micropipette
 E B - potential between the reference electrode and the extracellular fluid
 EC – Variable cell membrane potential
 EC - Potential existing at the tip due to different electrolyte present in the pipet
and the cell;
 E= E A + E B+ EC + EC
 R A = resistance of the connecting wire
 R FA , RWA ,C WA – impedance of the electrode-electrolyte interface in the stem of the
micropipette
 RT – resistance of the electrolyte filling the tip of the micropipette
 R¿ and R EX - resistance of the electrolyte inside the cell and the electrolyte outside
the cell
 R FB, RW ,C WB - reference electrode-electrolyte interface impedance
 R B - resistance of wire connected with reference electrode

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  C D – Distributed capacitance existing between the fluid in the pipet and the extra
cellular fluid.
 When the micropipette is coupled with it via a high series resistance ‘ RT ’ and
moderate shunt capacitance C D ’ along with electrode potentials.
 The impedance of the electrode places a limit on the response time of the circuit such
that it behaves as a low pass filter when the input impedance of the amplifier is not
high enough.

ii) Depth and needle electrodes:

When it is desired to bring an electrode close to a bioelectric generator, it is often
practical to penetrate the skin and advance the electrode through the penetration. So the
electrode should be sharp for penetration and to obtain highly localized extracellular
recordings of bioelectric events, these are used.

a) Depth electrode
Depth electrodes are used to study the electrical activity of the neurons in
superficial layers of the brain. Normally each electrode consists of a bundle of Teflon
insulated platinum (90%)-iridium(10%) alloy wires, bonded to a central supporting
stainless steel wire which can act as indifferent electrode by an insulating varnish.
Depth electrode impedance is smaller than the microelectrode impedance. In
some depth electrodes, the supporting steel wire is in the form of a capillary tube which
is used to inject medicine into the brain. It is also used to measure oxygen tension.

b) Needle electrode
 Generally needle electrode are used to record the peripheral nerve’s action
potentials.
 A short length of the fine insulated metal wire is bent at its one end and the bent
portion is inserted through the lumen of the needle and is advanced into the muscle.
 When the reference electrode is placed on the skin, then the needle electrode is
called mono polar.
 When we insert two insulated wires into the lumen of the needle, then the two wires
constitute bipolar electrode such that one wire is active electrode and the other wire
is reference electrode.

iii) Surface electrode

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 Generally larger area surface electrodes are to sense ECG potentials and smaller
area surface electrodes are used to sense EEG and EMG potentials.
There are different types:
a) Metal plate electrode
b) Suction cup electrode
c) Adhesive tape electrode
d) Multipoint electrode
e) Floating electrode
a) Metal plate electrodes

Figure : Metal plate electrode

 German silver (a nickel‐silver alloy) are used as surface electrode.

 Before it is attached to the body, its concave surface is covered with electrolyte gel.
 This structure can be used as a chest electrode for recording the ECG or in cardiac
monitoring for long‐term recordings.
 Electrodes used in monitoring EMGs or EEGs are generally smaller in diameter than
those used in recording ECGs.

b) Suction electrodes

Figure : suction electrode

 No straps or adhesives required
 Used for preco
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 rdial (chest) ECG measurement.
 can only be used for short periods
 It is more practical and is well suited for attachment to flat surfaces of the body and to
regions where the underlying tissue is soft.
c) Adhesive tape electrode
 The pressure of the surface electrode against the skin may squeeze the electrode
paste out. To avoid this problem, adhesive tape electrode is used.
 It consists of a light weight metallic screen backed by a pad for electrode paste.
 The adhesive backing holds the electrode in place and retards the evaporation of the
electrolyte present in the electrode paste.

Figure: Adhesive tape electrode

d) Multipoint electrode:
 The multipoint electrode is a very practical electrode for ECG measurements and it
contains nearly 1000 fine active contact points.
 By this a low resistance contact is established with the subject. If the subject has
hairs on the regions of interest, then one can use the multipoint electrode without
removing the hair. We can use it under any environmental conditions.
e) Floating electrode
In the floating electrode, the metal does not contact the subject directly. That is
the contact is made via an electrolytic bridge. By means of this electrode, movement
artifact is eliminated. This is also called as liquid junction electrode.
During the application of surface electrode, we are getting signals from a relatively
large section of tissue. The activity we see is the total product of millions of nerve or
muscle cells working as a team. If it becomes necessary to evaluate the activity of a
small section of tissue or of cells themselves, then the surface electrodes are not useful.
During long-term monitoring or exercise testing the surface electrode is an important part

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 of the system. The pH of the electrode paste should be maintained at 7.0 during
measurement and buffered.

3. Differentiate between polarizable electrodes and non polarizable electrodes. Give

examples for each. (A/M 2019) (or) Explain the polarizable and non-polarizable
electrode. Give examples. (N/D 2019) (or) Elucidate electrode – electrolyte
interface and the concept of half- cell potential. (A/M 2019) (or) Explain the
polarizable and non polarizable electrode. Give examples. (N/D 2018) (or) Why is
Ag/Agcl electrode most commonly used in bio-potential recording? (A/M 2018) (or)
(i) Define half cell potential (ii). What are polarizable and non- polarizable
electrode. (M/J 2016)
(i). Define half cell potential
In electrochemical cells, the electrical potential developed by the overall cell
reaction; can be considered, for calculation purposes, as the sum of the potential
developed at the anode and the potential developed at the cathode, each being a half-
cell.

left electrode: Zn(s) → Zn2+ + 2e– oxidation

right electrode: Cu2+ + 2e–→ Cu(s) reduction

(ii).What are polarization and non-polarisation electrode?

There are two basic types of bio-potential electrodes.
Polarizable electrodes
Perfectly polarizable electrodes do not allow conduction current to flow across a
electrode-electrolyte interface when a current is applied. The current across the interface
for this electrode, therefore, must be a displacement current(i.e., electric field coupled).

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 Non Polarizable electrodes
These are electrodes where current passes freely across the electrode-electrolyte
interface, requiring no energy to make the transition. These electrodes see no over
potentials. Example : Ag/Agcl electrode.
Silver-Silver chloride electrode

 A silver metal base with attached insulated lead wire is coated with a layer of the
ionic compound AgCl.(Silver chloride is only very slightly soluble in water, so it
remains stable.)
 The electrode is then immersed in an electrolyte bath in which the anion of the
−¿¿
electrolyte is Cl .The electrolyte solution should also be saturated with AgCl so that
there is little chance for any of the surface film on the electrode to dissolve.
 It is governed by two chemical reactions. The first involves the oxidation of silver
atoms on the electrode surface to silver ions in solution at the interface.

 The second reaction occurs immediately after the formation of Ag+¿¿ ions. These ions
−¿¿
combine withCl ions already insolution to form the ionic compound AgCl.
 AgCl is precipitates out of solution onto the silver electrode and contributes to the
silver chloride deposit.

4. Present the modelling of the electrode – skin interface and explain. (A/M 2019) (or)
(i) How does the electrode – electrolyte skin interface influence the behaviour of
the practical electrodes? Explain. (A/M 2018) (or) With neat sketch detail the
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electrode – skin interface model for electrode and electrolyte interface. (N/D 2017)
(or) Draw the diagram of electrode tissue interface for surface electrodes with
electrode jelly. Explain metal electrolyte and electrolyte skin interface. (A.M 2017)
(or) Explain the phenomenon that takes place in the electrode – electrolyte
interface and skin – electrode interface with their electrical equivalent circuit. (N/D
2016) (or) Explain the electrode – electrolyte interface with a neat sketch. Discuss
the potential distribution across the surface of contact with a neat sketch. (N/D
2015) (or)Draw the electrode – electrolyte interface and explain the features. (N/D
2015)

Electrode discharges some metallic ions into electrolytic solution

 Increase in free electrons in electrode
 Increase in positive cations (electric charge) in solution;or
 Ions in solution combine with metallic electrodes
 Decrease in free electrons in electrode
 Decrease in positive cations in solution.
 As a result, a charge gradient builds up between the electrode and electrolyte and
this in turn creates a potential difference
General Ionic Equations

 where n and m are less valences

 If the electrode is of the same material as the cations, then this material
gets oxidized and enters the electrolyte as a cation and electrons remain at the
electrode & flow in the external circuit;
 If anion can be oxidized at the electrode to form a neutral atom, one or two
electrons are given to the electrode.
 The dominating reaction can be inferred from the following :
 Current flow from electrode to electrolyte : Oxidation (Loss of e-)
 Current flow from electrolyte to electrode: Reduction (Gain of e-).

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Half Cell Potential:
 A characteristic potential difference established by the electrode and its surrounding
electrolyte which depends on the metal, concentration of ions in solution and
temperature (and some second order factors).
 Half cell potential cannot be measured without a second electrode.
 The half cell potential of the standard hydrogen electrode has been arbitrarily set to
zero. Other half cell potentials are expressed as a potential difference with this electrode.
 Reason for Half Cell Potential: Charge Separation at Interface Oxidation or reduction
reactions at the electrode-electrolyte interface lead to a double-charge layer, similar to
that which exists along electrically active biological cell membranes.
 An equation relating the potential across the membrane.
Nernst equation
An equation relating the potential across the membrane and the two
concentrations of the ion is called the Nernst equation

RT C1f
E= - nF ln C2 f 2
1

R=gas constant (8.315x107 )

T=absolute temperature, degrees Kelvin
n=Valence of the ion
F= Farady constant;
C 1 C 2 - Two concentrations of ion on the two sides of the membrane;
f 1 f 2 – Respective activity coefficients of the ion on the two sides of the membrane

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 Apart from the electrode –electrolyte interface, there is also the skin interface. The
skin consists of three layers, Epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous layer. We are most
interested at epidermis, as that is the main contact with the electrode
 Stratum corneum(dead cells)
 Stratum granulosum
 Stratum (basale) germinativum(where new skin cells form)
Deep layers of skin consist of vascular and nervous components, as well as sweat
glands, sweat ducts and hair follicles. With the exception of sweat glands, no particular
characteristics affecting the electrode performance

Figure: electrode skin interface model

METAL ELECTROLYTE:

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Perfectly Polarizable Electrodes:
These are electrodes in which no actual charge crosses the electrode- electrolyte
interface when a current is applied. The current across the interface is a displacement
current and the electrode behaves like acapacitor.
Example: Ag/AgCl Electrode

Perfectly Non-Polarizable Electrode:

These are electrodes where current passes freely across the electrode-electrolyte
interface, requiring no energy to make the transition. These electrodes see no
overpotentials.
Example: Platinum electrode

Equivalent circuit for a biopotential electrode in contact with an electrolyte

Ehc is the half-cell potential, Rd and Cd make up the impedance associated with the
electrode-electrolyte interface, and Rs is the series resistance associated with interface
effects and due to resistance in the electrolyte.

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5. Explain the construction and working principle of blood glucose sensor with
diagram. (N/D 2019) (or) describe the principle of biosensor used for blood
glucose monitoring. (A/M 2019) (or) Briefly explain about the working principle and
types of Biosensors.
 Biosensors combine the exquisite selectivity of biology with the processing power of
modern micro electronics and opto electronics to offer powerful new analytical tools with
major applications in medicine, environmental studies, food and processing industries.
 All chemical sensors consist of a sensing layer that interacts with particular chemical
substances, and a transducer element that monitors these interactions. Biosensors are
chemical sensors in which the sensing layer is composed of biological macro-molecules,
such as antibodies or enzymes.
 Today, the term biosensor is used to describe a wide variety of analytical devices based
on the union between biological and physico-chemical components.
 The biological component can consist of enzymes, antibodies, whole cells or tissue
slices and is used to recognize and interact with a specific analyte.
 The physico-chemical component, often referred to as the transducer, converts this
interaction into a signal, which can be amplified and which has a direct relationship with
the concentration of the analyte.
 The transducer may use potentiometric, amperometric, optical, magnetic, colorimetric or
conductance change properties.Biosensors offer the the specificity and sensitivity of
biological-based assays packaged into convenient devices for an in situ use by lay
personnel.
 For example, in the medical field biosensors allow clinical analyses to be performed at
the bedside, in critical care units and doctors’ offices rather than in centralized
laboratories.
 The subsequent results of the test can then be acted upon immediately thus avoiding the
delays associated with having to send samples to and having to wait for results from
centralized laboratories The critical areas of biosensor construction are the means of
coupling the biological component to the transducer and the subsequent amplification
system.
 Most of the early biosensors immobilized enzymes on selective electrodes, such as the
Clark O2 electode, which measured one of the reaction products (e.g. O2) of the
enzyme-analyte interaction.
 The most successful biosensor to-date is the home blood glucose monitor for use by
people suffering from diabetes. The biosensor in this instrument relies upon enzymes

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 that recognise and catalyze reactions of glucose with the generation of redox-active
species that are detected electrochemically.
 Figure shows the construction of this type of sensor. If the immobilized enzyme is soluble
glucose oxidase between the two membranes, it becomes a glucose sensor.

Constructional details of an enzyme utilizing sensor with oxygen electrode as the

underlying analytical tool
 It works on the principle that in the presence of glucose, oxygen is consumed, providing
a change in the signal from a conventional oxygen electrode. The chemical reaction of
glucose with oxygen is catalyzed in the presence of glucose oxidase. This causes a
decrease in the partial pressure of oxygen (pO2), and the production of hydrogen
peroxide by the oxidation of glucose to gluconic acid as per the following reaction:

 The changes in all of these chemical components can be measured in order to

determine the concentration of glucose.
 For constructing the sensor, glucose oxidase entrapped in a polyacrylamide gel was
used. In general, the response time of such types of bioelectrodes as slow and

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 subsequent work has concentrated on closer coupling of the biological component to the
transducer.
 The present technology in biosensors disposes of the coupling agent by direct
immobilization of the enzyme onto an electrode surface, making the bio-recognition
component an integral part of the electrode transducer.
 The major disadvantage of enzymatic glucose sensors is the instability of the
immobilized enzyme. Therefore, most glucose sensors operate effectively only for short
periods of time.
 A number of alternative approaches have been investigated to develop a glucose
sensor. An important principle that can be used for this purpose depends upon the
fluorescence-based, reversible competitive affinity sensor.
 The sensing element consists of a 3 mm hollow dialysis tube remotely connected to a
fluorimeter via a single optical fibre. It contains a carbohydrate receptor, Canavalin A,
immobilized on its inner surface and a fluorescein-labelled indicator as a competing
agent.

Miniature optical glucose sensor

 The analyte glucose in the external medium diffuses through the dialysis membrane and
competes for binding sites on a substrate (Canavalin A), with FITC-dextran.
 The sensor is arranged so that the substrate is fixed in a position out of the optical path
of the fibre end. It is bound to the inner wall of a glucose-permeable hollow fibre fastened
to the end of an optical fibre.

30
 The hollow fibre acts as the container and is impermeable to the large molecules of the
fluorescent indicator. Increasing glucose concentration displaces labelled FITC-dextran
from the Canavalin A, causing it to be free to diffuse into the illuminated solution volume.
 The optical field that extends from the fibre sees only the unbound indicator. At
equilibrium, the level of free fluorescein concentration. Biosensors are the most
appropriate technology in areas where traditional laboratory analyses, with their
associated cost and time requirement, are not a suitable solution.
 One such area in which sampling and laboratory analysis are clearly approriate is the
detection of hazardous gas escapes in the workplace. The protection of workers in the
chemical industry is ideally achieved with personal monitors based on biosensors
technology that can be worn on the clothing and which will give an immediate audible
warning of gas escape.
 For this purpose, biosensors for detection of hydrogen cyanide have been developed.
Besides the medical field, biosensors have tremendous applications in the food and
beverage industries.
 Although several biosensors have been developed over the past few years and there are
already numerous working biosensors, various problems still need to be resolved. Most
complex problems awaiting solution are their limited lifetime, which restrict their
commercial viability, necessitating improvements in their stability.

6. Explain with block diagram, the components of a generalized medical

instrumentation system. (A/M 2019) (or) Explain the component of a biomedical
instrument system with its block diagram. (M/J 2016).

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7. Explain in detail about the different operational modes of sensors.

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8. Explain indetail about the medical measurement constraints.

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9. Write a short note about the classifications of biomedical instruments and
biostatistics.

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