Endocrine System

Romel M. Durante, RN, MAN ( C )

Clinical Instructor
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 Learning Outcomes
By the end of the discussion, you should be able to:

1. Identify and characterize specific parts of the

Endocrine System
2. Explain the relationship between the structural and
functional characteristics of the Endocrine System
with its physiologic processes.
3. Explain the movement and task of hormones in
making sure that the body is always in a state of
homeostasis.

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 Endocrine System
❑ The term endocrine (en′dō-krin), derived from the Greek words
endo, meaning within, and krino, to secrete.
❑ The endocrine system is a series of glands that produce and
secrete hormones that the body uses for a wide range of
functions.
❑ These control many different bodily functions, including:
respiration, metabolism, reproduction, sensory perception,
movement, sexual development, and growth.
❑ The Endocrine System maintains homeostasis in the body by
coordinating the activities of millions of cells with the help of
chemical messengers secreted by various glands located
throughout the body.
❑ This system is composed of endocrine glands and specialized
endocrine cells located throughout the body.
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 Endocrine System
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Pineal
gland
Pituitary

Parathyroids
Thyroid (posterior
part of
thyroid)
Thymus

Adrenals Pancreas
(islets)

Ovaries
(female) Testes
(male)

4
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 Functions
• Conrtrols homeostasis which is the overall function of endocrine
system
• Regulates water balance by controlling solutes in the blood.
• Regulates uterine contractions during delivery and stimulates milk
release from the breasts in lactating females.
• Regulates the solute concentration of the blood.
• Regulates the rate of metabolism, the sum of the chemical changes
that occur in tissues.
• Helps regulate the heart rate and blood pressure and helps prepare
the body for physical activity.
• Regulates the levels of blood glucose and other nutrients in the
blood.
• Helps control the production and functions of immune cells.
• Controls the development and functions of the reproductive systems
in males and females
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 Components of Endocrine System
Endocrine glands
• secrete chemical messengers called hormones into the
bloodstream, rather than into a duct.
• These hormones go to specific sites called target tissues
or effectors, where they produce a coordinated response
of the target tissues.

Chemical signal
• molecules that are released from one location, move to
another location, and produce a response
6
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 Types of Intercellular Signals
Autocrine chemical messenger:
✓ stimulates the cell that originally secreted it,
and sometimes nearby cells of the same
type.
✓ released by cells and a have local effect on
same cell type
Example:
o eicosanoids (prostaglandins, thromboxanes,
prostacyclins, leukotrienes) secreted by
white blood cells during an infection like
which are released in response to
inflammation.
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 Types of Intercellular Signals
Paracrine chemical messenger:
✓ released by cells that affect other cell types in close proximity or they
act locally on nearby cells.
✓ These chemical messengers are secreted by one cell type into the
extracellular fluid and affect surrounding cells of a different type.
Example:
o Histamine
▪ released by certain white blood cells during allergic reactions
▪ It stimulates vasodilation in nearby blood vessels.
o Somatostatin
▪ inhibits insulin secretion
o eicosanoids
▪ increased during inflammation. 8
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Neurotransmitter and neuromodulators:
✓ secreted by neurons that activate an adjacent cell, whether it is another neuron, a
muscle cell, or a glandular cell.
✓ secreted into a synaptic cleft, rather than into the
bloodstream.
Example:
o Acetylcholine
▪ found in both the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous
system (PNS).
▪ It contracts smooth muscles, dilates blood vessels, increases bodily secretions,
and slows heart rate
o Epinephrine
▪ known as adrenaline, is a hormone secreted by the medulla of the adrenal
glands.
▪ Strong emotions such as fear or anger cause epinephrine to be released into the
bloodstream, which causes an increase in heart rate, muscle strength, blood
pressure, and sugar metabolism.
▪ Responsible in “Flight or Fight Response” which prepares the body 9 for
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Endocrine chemical messenger
✓ are secreted into the bloodstream by certain glands and
cells
✓ secreted into the blood by specialized cells; travels some
distance to target tissues; results in coordinated regulation
of cell function
✓ affect cells that are distant from their source.
Example:
o Thyroid hormones, growth hormone,
insulin, epinephrine, estrogen,
progesterone, testosterone,
prostaglandins
10
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 Components of Hormones
Receptor site
➢ location on a cell where hormone binds (lock)
➢ shape and chemical characteristics of each receptor site allow only
a specific type of hormone to bind to it.
Target tissues
➢ group of cells that respond to specific hormones
Specificity
➢ specific hormones bind to specific receptor sites
➢ tendency for each type of hormone to bind to one type of receptor,
and not to others
➢ Example: insulin binds to insulin receptors, but not to receptors for
thyroid hormones.
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 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Hormone 1 Hormone 2

Capillary

Circulating Hormone 2
Hormone 1
blood cannot bind to
bound to
its receptor this receptor

Hormone 1
receptor

Target cell
for hormone 1

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 How does this work?
1. Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands
directly into bloodstream
2. Hormones travel to all parts of body
3. Hormones (key) bind to receptor site (lock) on
target tissue
4. Response occurs

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 Types of Hormones
Water soluble hormones
✓ bind to membrane-bound receptors
✓ These are polar molecules and cannot pass through the plasma
membrane so they interact with membrane-bound receptors
✓ includes proteins, peptides, amino acids
✓ Because they can dissolve in blood, many circulate as free
hormones, meaning that most of them dissolve directly into the
blood and are delivered to their target tissue without attaching to a
binding protein.
✓ have relatively short half-lives because they are
rapidly degraded by enzymes, called proteases,
within the bloodstream
Ex. Growth hormone, antidiuretic, prolactin
14
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 Types of Hormones
Lipid-soluble hormones
✓ bind to nuclear receptors
✓ They diffuse through the plasma membrane
and bind to nuclear receptors, which are most
often found in the cell nucleus
✓ travel in the bloodstream attached to binding
proteins, proteins that transport the hormones
Example:
▪ Thyroid hormones and steroid hormones
(testosterone, estrogen, progesterone,
aldosterone, and cortisol), fatty acid
derivative hormones (eicosanoids)

15
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 Pituitary Gland

• also called the hypophysis

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• a small gland about the

size of a pea
• controlled by
hypothalamus
• Divided into 2 regions:
anterior and posterior

16
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Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Anterior Pituitary Gland
GROWTH HORMONE
➢ Target tissues: most
➢ Functions: stimulates growth of bones, muscles, and organs by
increasing gene expression
➢ increases IGF (insulin-like growth factors) secretion from tissues
such as the liver, and the IGF molecules bind to receptors on the
cells of tissues such as bone and cartilage, where they stimulate
growth.
➢ Abnormalities:
✓ Too little GH causes pituitary dwarfism
✓ Too much GH causes giantism
✓ Acromegaly - excess hormone is secreted after growth in bone
length is complete ; facial features and hands become
abnormally large 18
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 Anterior Pituitary Gland
THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE (TSH)
➢ binds to membrane-bound receptors on cells of the thyroid gland and
causes the cells to secrete thyroid hormone
➢ Target tissues: thyroid gland
➢ Functions: regulates thyroid gland secretions
➢ Abnormalities:
✓ Too much TSH, thyroid gland enlarges and secretes too much thyroid
hormone
❖ If your TSH levels are abnormally high, it could mean you have an
underactive thyroid, or hypothyroidism. That's because it indicates your
pituitary gland is producing more TSH in an effort to stimulate your thyroid
to produce thyroid hormone
❖ Standard treatment for hypothyroidism involves daily use of the synthetic
thyroid hormone levothyroxine (Levo-T, Synthroid).
❖ Constant stimulation of your thyroid to release more hormones may cause
the gland to become larger — a condition known as a goiter
19
✓ Too little TSH, thyroid gland shrinks secretes too little thyroid hormone
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 Anterior Pituitary Gland
GONADOTROPINS
❑ are hormones that bind to membrane-bound receptors on the cells of the
gonads (ovaries and testes).
❑ They regulate the growth, development, and functions of the gonads.
LH (Luteinizing) for females
➢ causes the ovulation of oocytes and the secretion of the sex hormones
estrogen and progesterone from the ovaries.
➢ Target tissue: ovaries
➢ Function: promotes ovulation and progesterone production
LH for males
➢ stimulates interstitial cells of the testes to secrete the sex hormone
testosterone and thus is sometimes referred to as interstitial cell–
stimulating hormone (ICSH).
➢ Target tissue: testes
➢ Function: sperm production and testosterone 20
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FSH (Follicle-Stimulating) for females
➢ Target tissue: follicles in ovaries
➢ Function: follicle maturation and estrogen secretion

FSH for males

➢ Target tissue: seminiferous tubules (testes)
➢ Function: sperm production

Without LH and FSH, the ovaries and testes decrease in size, no

longer produce oocytes or sperm cells, and no longer secrete
hormones

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 Anterior Pituitary Gland
PROLACTIN:
➢ binds to membrane-bound receptors in cells of the breast, where it
helps promote development of the breast during pregnancy
and stimulates the production of milk following pregnancy.
➢ Target tissues: mammary glands
➢ Functions: milk production

MELANOCYTE-STIMULATING HORMONE (MSH)

➢ binds to membrane-bound receptors on melanocytes and causes
them to synthesize melanin
➢ Over secretion / abnormally high level – darkening of skin

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 Posterior Pituitary Gland
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH)
➢ binds to membrane-bound receptors and increases water
reabsorption by kidney tubules. This results in less water lost as
urine.
➢ can also cause blood vessels to constrict when released in large
amounts, it is sometimes also called vasopressin
➢ Target tissues: kidneys
➢ Functions: conserve water
➢ Abnormalities:
✓ Diabetes insipidus:
• Low or lack of ADH
• kidneys produce large amounts of dilute (watery) urine
• can lead to dehydration and thirst
diuretic actions of alcohol are due to its inhibition of ADH secretion
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 Posterior Pituitary Gland
OXYTOCIN
➢ binds to membrane-bound receptors, and causes contraction of the
smooth muscle cells of the uterus as well as milk letdown from
the breasts in lactating women.
➢ Commercial preparations of oxytocin, known as Pitocin, are given
under certain conditions to assist in childbirth and to constrict
uterine blood vessels following childbirth.
➢ Target tissues: uterus
➢ Functions: increases uterine contractions during labor

24
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 Thyroid Gland
➢ butterfly-shaped gland
➢ It is made up of two lobes connected by a narrow band called the
isthmus. The lobes are located on each side of the trachea, just
inferior to the larynx
➢ One of largest glands
➢ Requires iodine to function and to synthesize thyroid hormones.
➢ Hormones produced: triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4)
✓ These hormones also influence the control of vital functions, such as body
temperature and heart rate.
➢ Thyroid hormones:
➢ Target tissues: most
➢ Functions: secrete thyroid hormones,
which bind to nuclear receptors in cells
and regulate the rate of metabolism in the body 26
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 Abnormalities of Thyroid Gland
• Hypothyroidism: • Hyperthyroidism:
– lack of thyroid hormones – Increased metabolism
– Decreased metabolism – Weight loss, increased appetite,
– Weight gain, reduced appetite, nervousness
fatigue – Higher temp. and pulse
– Low temp. and pulse – Warm, flushed skin
– Dry, cold skin – Graves’ disease (leads to goiter),
– Myxedema in adults accompanied by bulging of the eyes,
– Cretinism in infants a condition called exophthalmia

27
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 Thyroid Gland
Calcitonin
➢ Secreted by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland
➢ It is secreted if the blood concentration of Ca2+ becomes too
high, and it causes Ca2+ levels to decrease to their normal range
➢ binds to membrane-bound receptors of osteoclasts and reduces
the rate of Ca2+ reaborption (breakdown) from bone by
inhibiting the osteoclasts.
➢ Target tissues: bones
➢ Functions: secreted when blood Ca2+ levels are high

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 Parathyroid gland
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
➢ Four tiny glands embedded in the posterior wall of the thyroid
gland
➢ essential for the regulation of blood calcium levels
➢ Target tissues: bones and kidneys
➢ Functions: regulates blood Ca2+ levels (more than calcitonin)
❖ If Ca 2+ is low then osteoclasts break down bone matrix and less Ca
2+ is lost in urine.

❖ If Ca 2+ is high then osteoclasts don’t break

down bone matrix and more Ca 2+ is lost in urine.

29
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 Adrenal Glands
➢ two small glands located superior to each
kidney
➢ Has 2 regions: inner part (adrenal medulla) and
an outer part (adrenal cortex).
➢ The adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex
function as separate endocrine glands.
➢ principal hormone: epinephrine / adrenaline
➢ norepinephrine are also released in small
amount
➢ Epinephrine and norepinephrine are referred to
as the fight-or-flight hormones which prepares
the body for vigorous physical activity.
➢ Target tissues: heart, blood vessels, liver, fat
cells
➢ Functions: released as part of fight or flight 31
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 Adrenal Glands

Adrenal Cortex (outer portion)

➢ secretes three classes of steroid hormones:
mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens
A. mineralocorticoids ( Aldosterone ) helps regulate
blood volume and blood levels of K+ and Na+.
o Aldosterone causes Na+ and water to be retained in the
body and increases the rate at which K+ is eliminated;
indirectly involved with blood pressure and blood volume

33
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 Adrenal Glands
Adrenal Cortex (outer portion)
B. Glucocorticoids helps regulate blood nutrient levels.
➢ Cortisol (major glucocorticoid hormone)
✓increases the breakdown of proteins and lipids and increases
their conversion to forms of energy the body can use.
✓causes the liver to convert amino acids to glucose, and it acts
on adipose tissue, causing lipids to be broken down to fatty
acids
o glucose and fatty acids are released into the blood, taken up by
tissues, and used as a source of energy.
✓reduces the inflammatory and immune responses (ex. cortisone)
o Cortisone – used for allergic reactions or abnormal immune
responses, such as rheumatoid arthritis or asthma.
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 Adrenal Glands
Adrenal Cortex (outer portion)
C. Androgens
➢ secreted by the inner layer of the adrenal cortex
➢ stimulate the development of male sexual characteristics.
➢ In adult males, most androgens are secreted by the testes.
➢ In adult females, the adrenal androgens influence the female sex drive
➢ In women, androgens play a key role in the hormonal cascade that
kick-starts puberty, stimulating hair growth in the pubic and
underarm areas
➢ Target tissues: most
➢ Functions:
✓ Males: secondary sexual characteristics
✓ Females: hormonal cascade at puberty; sex drive
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 Pancreas

38
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 Pancreas
➢ endocrine part of the pancreas consists of pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans),
which are dispersed throughout the exocrine portion of the pancreas
➢ The islets secrete three hormones: insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin, which
help regulate the blood levels of nutrients, especially glucose
➢ Alpha cells secrete glucagon, beta cells secrete insulin, and delta cells secrete
somatostatin.
➢ Insulin:
✓ major target tissues for insulin are the liver, adipose tissue, muscles, and the area
of the hypothalamus that controls appetite, called the satiety center.
✓ is released from the beta cells primarily in response to the elevated blood
glucose levels and increased parasympathetic stimulation associated with
digestion of a meal.
✓ Target tissues: liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, satiety center
✓ Functions:
▪ regulates blood glucose levels
▪ after a meal glucose levels are high and insulin is secreted
39
▪ extra glucose isCopyright
stored in form of glycogen
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Abnormalities:
Diabetes mellitus:
✓ Causes: too little insulin or faulty insulin receptors
✓ Symptoms: exaggerated appetite(polyphagia), excess urine
(polyuria), excessive thirst (polydipsia), dehydration, fatigue.
✓ Type I: insulin dependent (daily injections required); caused
by the secretion of too little insulin from the pancreas.
✓ Type II: insulin independent, often found in obese people,
can be treated with diet but can turn into type I

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 Pancreas
Glucagon
➢ released from the alpha cells when blood
glucose levels are low
➢ It binds to membrane-bound receptors
primarily in the liver, causing the glycogen
stored in the liver to be converted to glucose.
The glucose is then released into the blood to
increase blood glucose levels.
➢ Target tissues: liver
➢ Function:
▪ regulates blood glucose levels
▪ between meals glucose levels drop and
glucagon is secreted
▪ glucagon allows glycogen to be broken down
into glucose 41
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 Pancreas
Somatostatin
➢ Released by the delta cells in response to food
intake.
➢ Somatostatin inhibits the secretion of insulin
and glucagon and inhibits gastric tract activity.
➢ it is produced in many locations, which include
the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, pancreas,
hypothalamus, and central nervous system.
➢ produces predominantly neuroendocrine
inhibitory effects across multiple systems.
➢ It is known to inhibit GI, endocrine, exocrine,
pancreatic, and pituitary secretions, as well as
modify neurotransmission and memory
formation in the CNS.
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 Testes
❑ secrete sex hormones in addition to producing sperm cells
❑ hormones produced by these organs play important roles in the
development of sexual characteristics.
Testosterone
➢ main sex hormone in the male which is secreted by the testes
➢ It is responsible for the growth and development of the male
reproductive structures, muscle enlargement, the growth of body
hair, voice changes, and the male sexual drive.
➢ Target tissues: most
➢ Functions: aids in sperm and reproductive organ development
and function

44
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 Ovaries
➢ Secretes two main classes of sex hormones that affect sexual
characteristics: estrogen and progesterone.
➢ Estrogen and Progesterone
➢ contribute to the development and function of female reproductive
structures and other female sexual characteristics such as
enlargement of the breasts and the distribution of adipose tissue,
which influences the shape of the hips, breasts, and thighs.
➢ female menstrual cycle is controlled by the cyclical release of
these hormones from the ovaries
➢ LH and FSH stimulate the secretion of hormones from the ovaries
and testes
➢ Target tissues: most
➢ Functions: involved in uterine and mammary gland development
and menstrual cycle 45
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 Thymus gland
❑ lies in the upper part of the thoracic cavity
❑ It is important in the function of the immune
system
❑ It is most important early in life; if an infant is
born without a thymus, the immune system does
not develop normally, and the body is less
capable of fighting infections.
Thymosin
➢ aids the development of white blood cells called
T cells (help protect the body against infection by
foreign organisms)
✓ Target tissues: immune system tissues
✓ Functions: promotes immune system
development and function 46
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 Pineal Body (Gland)
❑ is a small, pinecone-shaped structure located
superior and posterior to the thalamus of the brain
Melatonin
➢ regulates night and day cycles or sleep-wake cycles.
Darkness triggers the body to make more melatonin, which signals the
body to sleep. Light decreases melatonin production and signals the
body to be awake.
Some people who have trouble sleeping have low levels of melatonin. It's
thought that adding melatonin from supplements might help them sleep.
➢ thought to decrease the secretion of LH and FSH by decreasing the
release of hypothalamic releasing hormones, thus inhibits the
functions of the reproductive system.
➢ Target tissues: hypothalamus
➢ Functions: plays a role in onset of puberty and controls circadian
rhythms. 47
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 Effects of Aging on the Endocrine System
✓ Decreasing GH levels may explain the gradual decrease in bone and muscle
mass and the increase in adipose tissue seen in many elderly people.
✓ A decrease in melatonin secretion may influence age-related changes in sleep
patterns, as well as the decreased secretion of some hormones, such as GH and
testosterone.
✓ The kidneys of the elderly secrete less renin, reducing the ability to respond to
decreases in blood pressure
✓ Reproductive hormone secretion gradually declines in elderly men, and women
experience menopause
✓ Secretion of thymosin from the thymus decreases with age. Fewer functional
lymphocytes are produced, and the immune system becomes less effective in
protecting the body against infections and cancer.
✓ Parathyroid hormone secretion increases to maintain blood calcium levels if
dietary Ca2+ and vitamin D levels decrease, as they often do in the elderly.
Consequently, a substantial decrease in bone matrix may occur
✓ Age-related tendency to develop type 2 diabetes mellitus for those who have a
familial tendency, and it is correlated with age-related increases in body weight.
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