INSTRUMENTATION

[ Process Engineering ]

Instrument

PROCESS TEAM
BY KHG

Copyright ⓒ2009 Samsung Engineering Co., Ltd. All rights reserved

Copyright ⓒ2009 Samsung Engineering Co., Ltd. All rights reserved
 Table of Contents
1. General Instrument Consideration
2. Purpose of control
3. Sensing Device
4. Pressure instrument
5. Temperature instrument
6. Level instrument
7. Flow meter
8. Control valve
9. Type of On-off valve
10. Valve Sizing
11. The Problems possible in valve
12. Datasheet format
13. Homework 2
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1. General Instrumentation Consideration

• Use best technology for design

- Perceive general routine problem

• Consider not only normal case but also start-up/shut down/

abnormal case
- Operators are not engineers
• Design a safe plant
- Maintain process variables within safe range
- Consider emergency sensing, alarm, automatic shut down
system

• Optimize energy consumption

• During basic engineering stage, control scheme should be

reviewed by instrument engineer before detail Heat & Material
balance setup. It is better that determine the final control
scheme after discussing with process engineer, Instrument
engineer and operator.
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 2. purpose of control

(1) Alleviating operating cost

– Instrument cost take 5~10% of entire equipment cost, so the plant become
bigger, instrument cost also be increased. However automatic control
improves quality of product, and it can also save raw material and energy
cost.

(2) Uniformity of Quality :

– Because of regularity for manufacturing condition, product also
has uniform quality. Therefore it can reduce a rejected rate and
product stable quality product.

(3) Advanced work :

– Because operation is done automatically by control system,
workers become be free from dangerous environment and they
can concentrate on more high degree job such as monitoring and
analysis.

(4) Environment conservation :

– Environmental problem is an important issue in the industry.
Control system can be a very useful tool for supervising pollutant
emission, for example gas chromatograph and pH meter.

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 3. Sensing Device

(1) Considerable factor for selecting pressure sensor

- Local or Remote
- Chemical sealing (diaphragm) or not
- Checking prior factor such as accuracy, repeatability
- Range of measurement (vacuum, pressure difference,
pressure)

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 3. Sensing Device

(2) Considerable factor for selecting level sensor

- Hazard caused by operator who unknowns level of

tank of vessel is the most dangerous than any other
hazardous factor

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 3. Sensing Device

(3) General procedure for selecting level instrument

a. Float
b. Displacer
c. Differential Pressure
d. Air Bubble
e. Capacitance
f. Ultra-Sonic
g. Nuclear

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 3. Sensing Device

(4) Considerable factor for selecting level instrument

sensor

- Vessel Type
- Fluid
- Process condition
- Purpose of Sensor
(monitor, on-off control, modulating, alarm)
- Signal type
- Cost
- Reliability

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 3. Sensing Device

(5) Considerable factor for selecting temperature

sensor

- Temperature Range
- Accuracy
- Speed of response
- Cost
- Maintenance requirement

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 3. Sensing Device

(6) Considerable factor for selecting flow sensor

- Full Bore Meter

- Insertion Flow meter

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 3. Sensing Device

(7) Composition

- pH meter – Usually reliable

- Gas Chromatography – Usually reliable
- Viscometer – Moderately reliable
- Sulfur Analyzer – Poor reliable
- Flash Point Analyzer – Moderately reliable
- Oxygen Analyzer – Poor reliable
- Conductivity – Usually reliable

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 4. Pressure Instrument - Bourdon Type

• Bourdon tube is a bended tube that shown as following. One

end is fixed and the other end is free. If pressure is taken
into the tube than the radius of curvature change and the
free end makes displacement which is commensurate to the
pressure. This displacement indicates the pressure by using
gears

• Spiral Bourdon : 0~1, 0~14kg/cm²g

• C Type Bourdon : 1~25, 1~70kg/cm²g
• Helical Bourdon : 15~140, 15~450kg/cm²g

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 4. Pressure Instrument - Diaphragm

• Diaphragm in the shape of elastic disk is attached to fluid and

its displacement caused by pressure change can be measured
• Applicable to corrosive, high viscosity, high temperature fluid
which can damage sensor
※ Application & character

diaphragm type has good elastical characteristic for

the pressure and is very sensitive to even range of
small pressure.

. small pressure : 0 ~ 250mmH₂O, 0 ~ 0.7kg/cm²g

. lower pressure than ATM : -650mmHO, 250mmHg

. The pressure of two different fluid can be measured

respectively so it is appropriate for measuring anti-
corrosive fluid.
. Appropriate for measuring small pressure due to its
sensitivity
. It can occur hysteresis by large displacement

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 4. Pressure Instrument - Manometer

• manometer has simple structure and is easy to handle so widely used

for calibration or used in a lab
• U tube type, inclined tube type, short tube type, differential pressure
type, Torricelli tube type
• measurable range : 5 ~ 2000 mmH2O

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 4. Pressure Instrument - Manometer

Feature :
(i) Use for calibration of elastic type pressure instrument due to its high
accuracy
(ⅱ) It can precisely measure small pressure, vacuum, pressure difference
(ⅲ) It can set the zero point by moving gauge plate up and down

Caution :
(ⅰ) Avoid vibration and dirt and set the equipment vertically
(ⅱ) When you measure different pressure, one side glass tube should be
connected to high pressure position and another side glass tube should be
connected to low pressure position.
(ⅲ) Use pure manometer liquid only
(iv) If a precise measurement is required correction should be done
according to capillary phenomenon & gravity that depend on location.

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 4. Pressure Instrument - Strain Gauge

Principle & structure

R = resistance
p = resistivity
L = length
A = cross sectional area

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 4. Pressure Instrument - Capacitance Type

principle & structure

δ •S
C:
d
• C : capacity
• d : distance between electrode plates
• δ: permitivity
• S : area of electrode plates
• Capacity is changed depend on the area of electrode plates (S) and the
distance between electrode plates (d), If the pressure shifts the plate
left&right or up&down and then capacity will be change and it will let us know
the pressure.
• most well-known company which make the pressure instrument by
implicating this principle is Rosemount. In similar way there is variable
resistance type which reluctance variation by pressure is applied

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 5. Temperature Instrument - Thermocouple

• If two different metal conductors are connected, then EMF (Electromotive

Force) is generated because of different temperature of the end of metal. It
called Seebeck principle. The thermocouple is usually used for measurement
of process temperature because of simple structure, availability for remote
control/ continuous control, and ability to measure different position
temperature at one place.

Hot Metal A (+) Cold

Junction Junction
(t1) EMF = E (t2)

Metal B (-)

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 5. Temperature Instrument - Thermocouple

advantage & disadvantage of thermocouple

1) advantage
①economic, relatively high accuracy
②It can be installed easily, no design restriction
③indicating and control are possible by electrical output
④good re-freshness, send the signal for long distance.
⑤response is fast compared with Filled system.
⑥easy to calibration check

2) disadvantage
①voltage is not always linear to the temperature
②less accurate than resistance bulb
③range of temperature is not as narrow as filled system or resistance bulb
④Many amplifiers is required to measure more things
⑤Accessory cost for control is relatively high.

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 5. Temperature Instrument - Thermocouple

// thermocouple

/ /magnesium

Structure of thermocouple

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5. Temperature Instrument - Resistance Temperature Detector

• Characteristic of metal which varies its specific electrical resistance is

used to make resistance temperature detector(RTD). Platinum,
copper, nickel is mainly used. Wheatstone bridge circuit is generally
used to convert electrical resistance to temperature unit
Rt = R0 (1 + αt )
• Relative equation between temperature and resistance
• R0 : resistance at 0 ℃ A
• Rt : resistance at t ℃ R

α : temperature resistance coefficient

B
•

Structure of RTD 2 line measuring type 3 line measuring type

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 5. Temperature Instrument - Filled System

• Injected fluid into the sensor spot will undergo swelling

and shrinking caused by temperature change and this
is converted to mechanical displacement of Bourdon
tube for measuring

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 5. Temperature Instrument - Bimetal Thermometer

Bimetal Thermometer

It is use that the junction of two metal which have different thermal
expansion coefficient . If this bimetal is heated, it will bend toward the
metal which have lower thermal expansion coefficient. Transformation is
estimated mechanically and it can indicate temperature. General
coverage range is from -40C to 350C but maximum -70C ~ 550C range
is also available. ∆T 2
Bimetal transform equation D = K L
t
D : transformed length of bimetal
t : thickness of bimetal
K : bending factor
ΔT : temperature difference
L : length of bimetal

// metal which have lower

thermal expansion coefficient

// heating
// transformed
// metal which have higher
thermal expansion coefficient 23
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 6. Level Instrument - Gauge Glass
(1) Reflex type application
- no color, low viscosity
- lower pressure than 25kg/cm2G
- etc.
(2) Transparent type application
- adsorptive liquid to glass, liquid with dirt
- when supervising interface is required
- when the Mica shelter is required for preventing glass corrosion by liquid
- pressure above 25kg/㎠ G under 100kg/㎠ G
- temperature under 0 ℃

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 6. Level Instrument - Differential pressure

- It can measure the liquid level in the tank by measuring static

pressure because it have static pressure which is commensurate
to height and density of upper liquid

P0
정압측 압력 : P₁//
부압측 압력 : P₂
P₁= ρh + Po
P₂= Po
h

P1 P2
∴△P = P₁ - P₂ = ρh
ρ

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 6. Level Instrument - Air Purge

Theory and Structure

As you see below tube is installed at the bottom of the tank. If air or gas is injected through
tube there is no bubble generation until the tube pressure is equal to static pressure of liquid.
When the tube pressure reached to static pressure of liquid bubble generation will begin. We
can know level by estimating supplied air pressure because pressure in the tube is
commensurate to static pressure of liquid. It is possible to use for corrosive fluid in case of
anti-corrosive tube. We can use tube even dirty fluid because we are injecting air
continuously. Flow rate of air is 30-50L/hr and some error can occur when excessive air,
which can make back pressure by bubbling is injected.

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 6. Level Instrument - Capacitance

Theory and structure

Electric capacity type level instrument calculates the liquid level through
electric permittivity of fluid which have relation with electric capacity.
As you see below concentric cylinder which consists of internal electrode with
diameter r and external electrode with diameter R is filled with fluid which have
electric permittivity ξ. In that case electric capacity between two electrodes is
as below. ξ1 L
C1 = K [ PF ]
R
log
r

If the fluid which have ξ₂permitivity (ξ₂>ξ₁) is added in ℓ section, electric

capacity C2 will increase as much as ∆C.
Electric capacity type level instrument concept figure

C₂= C₁ + △C
(ξ 2 − ξ 1 )l
∆C = K [ PF ]
R
log
r

(ξ 2 − ξ 1 )l + ξ 1 L
∴ C2 = K [ PF ]
R
log
r
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 6. Level Instrument - Displacement

principle & structure

Archimedes’s buoyancy concept is generally used

to measure level. If the level of fluid is higher,
stronger buoyancy will act on the things
buoyancy on displacer is equal to weight of fluid
excluded volume of displacer. If cross sectional
area of displacer is constant along the axial
direction, buoyancy and level will have linear
relation. So we can know the level by measuring
buoyancy. In case of level L Buoyancy F on
displacer is equal as followings
F : buoyancy
ρ: liquid density
D : displacer diameter (m)
H : displacer height(H=Lmax ) (m)
d : rising height of displacer at 100% level (m)
L: Level (m)
Lmax : height of 100% level (m)

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 6. Level Instrument - Chain and Tape Float Gauge

Float type level meter is almost essential used

in raw material tank and product storage tank. Level accuracy is higher about
several mm. Measurement error caused by disturbance is small. Especially if use the
auto parallel type, it is possible to measure the level to 1.5 mm. Float type is
generally used in cone roof tank, ball tank and LNG tank.

If set the float

above liquid surface and pull up with constant tension,
buoyancy and tension is on the balance. Without
tension, float is submerged. To constant tension of
float, tension set to increase or decrease by liquid
level and stop the float and measure the liquid level.

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 7. Flow meter

To choose a meter suitable to purpose or condition, it is advisable to

consider the following conditions of measurement fluid.

• Shape of pipeline
• State, type, condition, phase of fluid
• Measurable range of flux
• Straight run of pipeline
• Maximum allowable pressure loss
• Required accuracy
• Instantaneous flow or integrating flow
• Local or remote transmit
• Easy to using and maintenance, easy to installation
• Cost

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 7. Flow meter

Flow meter

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 7. Flow meter

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 7. Flow meter

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 7. Flow meter - Differential pressure type

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 7. Flow meter - Rotameter

As shown on the picture, a rotameter

consists of a tapered tube, whose top
side is wide, with a float inside. When
the fluid flows inside, the float goes up
proportional to the flow rate. The reason
is that differential pressure occurs due to
the float, which acts a orifice plate. The
tapered tube gets wider and the
differential pressure decreases as the
float rises, which cause the weight of the
tapered tube to be equivalent to the
weight of the float, and finally the float
stops moving.

The special features of a rotameter

1. wide range ability Cautions
2. no need for distance before and after 1. difficult to measure the flow that
installation vibrates intensely.
3. cheap, if small channel 2. unavailable if high accuracy is
4. no need for adjustment in field requested.
5. only little flow rate can be measured 3. unable to be set up, except for
vertical pipe.
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 7. Flow meter - Displacement Meter

Displacement Meter is a equipment that measure the flow rate of fluid, and
that can measure most of liquid.
Accuracy is as high as +0.5% ~ -0.5%. Measurement range is as wide as
0.004~1500m3/hr. Pipe size can be from 1 inch to 16 inch. Measureable in -
30~300C degree and up to 100 atm
The flow meter can be applied between 0.1cP and 150000cP. Especially, it
can be applied in the case of intermittent flow.

Special Features of Displacement Meter

 can measure the fluid rate with high viscosity
 can measure the fluid rate with high accuracy
Cautions
 high cost and hard maintenance.
 Need for adjustment for actual flux.
 Strainer is required if there is solid mixture
due to rotation of a gear.
 Indraft of bubble should be prevented.

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 7. Flow meter - Magnetic Type

• Magnetic type is involved in Faraday's law of induction. Volume flux can be

drawn by generating magnetic flux density “B” and measuring electromotiv
e force “e” caused by flow flux “Q”

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 7. Flow meter - Turbine Meter

• The way that a rotor is set up inside pipe and measure the number of
rotation with pick-up coil and convert the number of rotation to flow flux.

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 7. Flow meter - Vortex meter

• A vortex proportional to the flow rate is generated at the rear if there is

a cylinder or a rectangular object vertical to the fluid flow. Periodic
force generated by the vortex causes change of resistance in lag. By
the change of resistance, frequency can be measured, and the flow
flux can be calculated.

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 7. Flow meter - Coriolis Meter

• If fluid goes through meter, the sensor tube of meter start to vibrate. As the
tube vibrates, coriolis force is generated at the either sides of tube. The flow
flux can be calculated by twisted angle of the tube caused by the coriolis
force.

Typical arrangement for a coriolis flowmeter. Driven frequency changes

with flowrate and density.

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 7. Flow meter - Ultrasonic Flow meter

• Ultrasonic wave is radiated from outside of pipe to the fluid flow, and then
flow flux can be obtained from transmitted wave or reflective wave affected
by the flow rate.

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 8. Control Valve

Control valve is final control component, which is combined with control

ler or transmitter and conducts “On/Off” or “Throttling” in response to si
gnals received from controllers.

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 8. Control Valve - Definition of Cv

Cv is unit to indicate flux per minute as U.S. gallon in case that the
differential pressure between valve inlet water and valve outlet water in
15.6c degree is 1 psi.
The coefficient to indicate the capacity of a valve.

Flow rate should be 90% of the maximum flow rate in the maximum Cv
capacity, 50-80% in the normal flow rate, and 10-20% in the minimum
Cv capacity.

Incompressible fluid
V: maximum flow rate in gpm,
1.167 V G
G: specific gravity, Cv =
ΔP: differential pressure in psi ∆P

 Compressible fluid

 P2 > 0.5 × P1

 P2 < 0.5 × P1

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 8. Control Valve - classified into Inherent

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 8. Control Valve - Leakage Class

It is specified in ANSI/FCI 70-2-1991 how much valve seat leakage during

isolation can be allowed as percent of rated Cv of a control valve, as seen
below.

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 8. Control Valve - Fail Action

Fail actions should be chosen in the following aspects, and both air
failure and instrument signal failure need to be considered when
choosing valve action.

 The plant can be put in safe condition.

 The other facilities will not be adversely affected.
 Re-startup can be easily conducted.

Failure close is general in the case of flow and level control, and typical
failure action is shown below.

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 8. Control Valve - Classified into Trim shape

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 8. Control Valve - Classified into Trim shape

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 9. Type of On-Off Valve

• Ball Valve
• Gate Valve
• Butterfly Valve

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 9. Type of On-Off Valve - Globe valve

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 9. Type of On-Off Valve - Gate Valve

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 9. Type of On-Off Valve - Angle Valve

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 9. Type of On-Off Valve - Ball Valve

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 9. Type of On-Off Valve - 3 way valve

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 9. Type of On-Off Valve - Diaphragm Valve

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 9. Type of On-Off Valve - Actuator

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 10. Valve Sizing

It is simple to determine Valve size for On-off valve. We just set valve
size along with pipe size without any calculation so that pressure loss
can be reduced.

However, to control the flow rate, appropriate size needs to be

calculated. If small one is chosen, the pressure loss and the velocity get
higher so that cavitation and flashing occurs, which cause severe noise,
vibration that affects valves and equipment, and the increase of the flow
rate that makes delicate control harder.

Therefore, appropriate valve size is essential for precise control.

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 10. Valve Sizing

 The following conditions have to be considered to determine valve size. These

conditions should be considered under not only normal operation condition, but also
special conditions such as the worst operating condition or comissioning.

 Flow application data

• Flow quantity: Flow rate and design flow rate during maximum, normal and minimum
operations.
• Pressure: inlet and outlet pressure, differential pressure, and design pressure in each
case of maximum, normal, and minimum flow rate
• Temperature: temperature and design temperature during maximum, normal and
minimum operations.

 Fluid data
• Fluid state: liquid, gas, steam, mixed fluid
• Density: specific gravity, specific weight, molecular weight
• Viscosity: considered in the case of liquid
Vapor pressure, critical pressure: With the type of the fluid, temperature, and pressure,
dew point and bubble point are different. There are big difference between liquid volume
and vapor volume of the same substance.
• Ratio of mixed gas in fluid. Ratio which contain solid and liquid mixture in fluid.
• Flammability, toxicity. The relations with the environment in the case of leakage.

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 10. Valve Sizing

Pipe condition: pipe size of the front/the back of valve, the material of valve, whether
pipe has instrument affecting fluid, such as reducer.

System influence
• Maximum differential pressure when valve is closed
• Valve stroking time
• Plug location when power or air is isolated.
• Maximum allowable leakage when valve is totally closed.
• Safety against fire

Valve type
• Valve capacity: capacity varies with the type of valve
• Range ability: 20-80% of the flow rate
• Corrosion: change of chemical material
• Erosion: physical wear
• Seal
• Noise

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 11. The problems possible in Valve

 Choked flow
Choked flow occurs when the velocity of process fluid, such as gas and steam, increases
up to sonic velocity in valve or down stream pipe. When a flowing fluid flows through a
restriction of valve, pressure decreases, and specific volume increases until the velocity
increases up to sonic velocity. If choked flow occurs, the flow rate at the time is limited to
the flow rate that can pass through a valve. The flow rate can not be increased unless the
condition is changed. If the fluid is gas, the velocity of certain point of valve or down
stream pipe is limited to mach 1. For this reason, choked flow has to be considered when
determining valve size.

 Cavitation
Cavitation occurs only in liquid flow. If liquid flow is accelerated to pass through vena
conracta tap, the pressure can fall below its vapor pressure, and bubble can be formed. If
liquid flow still flows through vena conracta tap, flow cross section area expands, so the
velocity gets lower, and the pressure increases. This pressure recovery causes the
pressure to increase above the vapor pressure. At this time, bubble is broken. In a
moment, vacuum comes up so that surrounding liquid droplets crowded in rapid
movement. Finally, an inner wall is damaged, and Instruments are worn away.

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 12. Datasheet Format

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 12. Datasheet Format

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 12. Datasheet Format

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 12. Datasheet Format

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 13. Homework

• Prepare the Process data sheet by SECL format for the project
that you are involved (or had been involved) Temperature /
Pressure/ Level/ Flow measure instrument and Control valve.

• Send the P&ID and prepared data sheet by e-mail.

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