Introduction: Neuro-Cognitive Psychology & Research

Methods
 Scope and Purpose
o Introduces students to biological and cognitive approaches to explaining
human behavior, focusing on how the central nervous system (CNS) produces
and controls sensation, perception, behavior, and cognition.
o Emphasizes research methods for studying psychological phenomena.
 Key Topics Covered

1. Biological and Neuropsychology

2. Sensation and Perception
3. Cognition, especially Human Memory
4. Research Methods in Psychology

Week 8: Biological and Neuropsychology

1. Foundations of Neuropsychology

 Definitions and Roles

o Neuropsychology: The study of how brain structure and function influence
behavior and mental processes.
o Neuropsychologist: A psychologist trained to diagnose and treat cognitive or
behavioral changes resulting from brain injury, using both research and
clinical approaches.
o Neurologist: A medical doctor who treats disorders of the nervous system.
 Subfields
o Research Neuropsychologists: Investigate brain–mind relationships through
experiments and neuroimaging.
o Clinical Neuropsychologists: Apply neuropsychological knowledge to
diagnose and rehabilitate individuals with brain injuries or disorders.
 Case Study: Melinda’s Granny
o Granny suffered a right occipital-parietal stroke, resulting in unilateral
neglect (ignoring the left side of her body/visual field).
o Illustrates how localized brain damage (right parietal lobe) leads to specific
deficits in awareness, movement, and memory.

2. Organization of the Nervous System

 Central Nervous System (CNS)

o Brain: Consists of hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain; protected by meninges,
skull, and cerebrospinal fluid.
o Spinal Cord: Conveys sensory and motor signals between the body and brain;
composed of gray (inner) and white (outer) matter; damage leads to loss of
communication below injury level.
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
 o Somatic Nervous System: Voluntary control of skeletal muscles; transmits
sensory information to the CNS and motor commands back to muscles.
o Autonomic Nervous System: Involuntary regulation of internal organs;
subdivided into:
 Sympathetic Division: “Fight or flight” (e.g., dilated pupils, increased
heart rate).
 Parasympathetic Division: “Rest and digest” (e.g., slowed heart rate,
resumed digestion).

3. Brain Structures and Their Functions

 The Hindbrain (Oldest Part)

1. Medulla Oblongata: Controls vital automatic functions (breathing, heart rate).
Damage is life-threatening.
2. Pons: Connects spinal cord and brain; regulates sleep and arousal. Damage
can be linked to narcolepsy.
3. Cerebellum: Coordinates balance, posture, and motor learning; alcohol impairs
function, causing poor coordination.
 The Midbrain

o Reticular Formation: A network of neurons extending from hindbrain into

midbrain; regulates arousal (alertness) and sleep-wake cycles. Lesions may
result in coma.

 The Forebrain (Newest Part)

1. Thalamus: Sensory relay station; filters and directs incoming sensory
information to appropriate cortical areas.
2. Hypothalamus: Regulates basic drives and homeostasis (hunger, thirst,
temperature, sex); links CNS to endocrine system via the pituitary gland.
3. Limbic System: Involved in emotion, memory, and motivation. Key structures:
 Amygdala: Processes fear and emotional responses.
 Hippocampus: Essential for forming new long-term memories
(demonstrated by the famous case of H.M., who lost the ability to form
new memories after bilateral hippocampal resection).
4. Basal Ganglia: Involved in movement planning and initiation; dysfunction
implicated in Parkinson’s disease and mood disorders.
5. Cerebrum (Cerebral Cortex): Largest part of the brain; wrinkled surface
increases cortical area; responsible for higher-order cognitive functions
(thinking, language, decision-making).
 Four Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
1. Frontal Lobe: Executive functions, planning, language production (Broca’s
area).
2. Parietal Lobe: Somatosensory processing (touch, pain, spatial orientation).
Injury can cause “unilateral neglect.”
3. Temporal Lobe: Auditory processing and language comprehension
(Wernicke’s area).
4. Occipital Lobe: Primary visual processing.
 Hemispheric Specialization
 o Left Hemisphere: Predominantly language, logical reasoning, and analytic
tasks.
o Right Hemisphere: Specializes in spatial skills, face recognition, and some
creative functions.
o Corpus Callosum: Thick fiber bundle connecting hemispheres; cut in “split-
brain” patients to alleviate severe epilepsy, leading to interesting dissociations
in perception and behavior (e.g., inability to verbally identify objects
presented to the “non-language” hemisphere).

4. Neurons and Neurotransmission

 Structure of a Neuron
o Dendrites: Receive incoming signals.
o Cell Body (Soma): Integrates incoming signals.
o Axon: Conveys electrical impulse (action potential) away from the cell body;
often insulated by myelin sheath (fatty layer) which speeds conduction.
o Axon Terminals: Release neurotransmitters across the synaptic gap.
 Action Potential
o At rest: Neuron maintains a negative resting potential (≈ –70 mV).
o Depolarization: Na⁺ rushes in; if threshold is reached, an action potential
(“all-or-nothing” spike) propagates along the axon.
o Repolarization/Refractory Period: K⁺ flows out to restore resting potential;
neuron briefly cannot fire again.
 Synaptic Transmission

1. Action potential reaches axon terminal.

2. Neurotransmitter-filled vesicles release their contents into the synaptic cleft.
3. Neurotransmitters bind to receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron, causing
excitatory (go) or inhibitory (stop) postsynaptic potentials.
4. Excess neurotransmitters are reabsorbed (reuptake) or enzymatically broken
down.
5. Malfunctions in neurotransmission underlie disorders: e.g., multiple sclerosis
(demyelination slows conduction); substance abuse (ecstasy floods synapses
with serotonin, leading to neurotoxicity).

 Major Neurotransmitters
o Serotonin: Regulates mood, sleep, appetite; deficits linked to
depression/anxiety.
o Dopamine: Involved in reward, movement; deficits lead to Parkinson’s, excess
implicated in schizophrenia.
o Acetylcholine (ACh): Critical for learning, memory, muscle activation; low
levels associated with Alzheimer’s.
o Others include norepinephrine, GABA (inhibitory), glutamate (excitatory),
endorphins, etc.

5. The Endocrine System

 Overview
 o A network of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream; messages are
slower but longer lasting compared to neural signals.
 Major Endocrine Glands and Functions

1. Pituitary Gland: “Master gland” under hypothalamic control; secretes growth

hormone, prolactin, ACTH, etc.
2. Thyroid Gland: Regulates metabolism via thyroxine; hypo- or
hyperthyroidism affects energy levels and weight.
3. Adrenal Glands:
 Adrenal Medulla: Secretes adrenaline and noradrenaline during stress
(“fight or flight”).
 Adrenal Cortex: Produces cortisol (stress hormone), aldosterone (salt
balance).
4. Pancreas: Produces insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar; dysfunction
leads to diabetes.
5. Gonads (Ovaries/Testes): Secrete sex hormones (estrogen, progesterone,
testosterone) influencing reproduction, secondary sex characteristics, and
behavior.

Week 9: Split-Brain and Perceptual Asymmetries

1. Split-Brain Surgery (Corpus Callosotomy)

 Purpose: Treat severe, drug-resistant epilepsy by severing the corpus callosum to

prevent seizure spread between hemispheres.
 Effects:
o Dramatically reduces seizure frequency.
o Creates unique research opportunities: when visual information is presented
only to one hemisphere, split-brain patients may be unable to verbally identify
objects seen by the “right” hemisphere (which lacks language centers), but can
draw or select them with the left hand.
o Demonstrates functional specialization: left hemisphere specializes in
language; right hemisphere excels at spatial and nonverbal tasks.
 Roger Sperry’s Contributions
o Pioneering split-brain studies that revealed hemispheric lateralization.
o Established that the two hemispheres can operate independently, each
specialized for certain types of cognitive processing.

2. Perceptual Asymmetries

 Definition: Differences in how each hemisphere processes sensory information.

 Clinical Relevance:
o Valuable for understanding lateralization in healthy brains, though findings
from split-brain patients cannot be fully generalized to intact individuals.
o Informs diagnosis and rehabilitation of perceptual disorders (e.g., dyslexia,
agnosias).
  Key Point: Normal brains rely on constant interhemispheric communication; split-
brain studies illustrate what happens when that bridge is cut, but do not directly
represent typical functioning.

Week 10: Sensation and Perception

1. Core Definitions

 Sensation: Passive detection of physical stimuli (light, sound, pressure) by sensory

organs (eyes, ears, skin), followed by transduction into neural signals.
 Perception: Active interpretation of sensory input, shaped by prior knowledge,
context, and expectations.
 Case Study: Melinda’s Multisensory Experience
o Describes how sensation (feeling sun, hearing birds) is transformed into a
cohesive perceptual experience.
o Emphasizes subjectivity: the same stimuli can be perceived differently
depending on individual background and context.

2. Psychophysics

 Focus: How physical stimulus properties relate to psychological experiences.

 Key Concepts:
1. Absolute Threshold: Minimum stimulus intensity detectable 50% of the time
(e.g., faintest sound, dimmest light).
2. Difference Threshold / Just Noticeable Difference (JND): Smallest detectable
difference between two stimuli 50% of the time. Governed by Weber’s
Law (constant proportion).
3. Signal Detection Theory: Recognizes that detection is influenced by sensory
sensitivity, decision criteria, motivation, fatigue, and expectation. Involves
“hits,” “misses,” “false alarms,” and “correct rejections.”
4. Adaptation: Sensory receptors diminish responsiveness to unchanging stimuli
to prevent overload (e.g., not noticing a constant odor).

3. The Visual System

 Anatomy of the Eye

1. Cornea → Pupil/Iris (iris adjusts size of pupil to control light entry)
→ Lens → Retina (image focused here).
2. Photoreceptors:
 Rods: Sensitive in low light; black-and-white vision; distributed
throughout retina.
 Cones: Sensitive to color and detail; concentrated in the fovea (center
of retina).
3. Optic Nerve → Optic Chiasm → Contralateral Processing (left visual field →
right hemisphere; right visual field → left hemisphere) → Primary Visual
Cortex (occipital lobe) → Secondary/Tertiary Visual Areas(temporal/parietal
lobes for object recognition, spatial processing).
  Visual Perception and Disorders

o Case Study: Mr. S

 Suffered a left occipital stroke; could see visual stimuli but
developed alexia (inability to read) because visual word-form area and
corpus callosum fibers were disrupted.
 Demonstrates difference between intact sensation (eyes function) and
impaired perception (brain cannot interpret written words).
o Color Vision Theories:

1. Trichromatic Theory: Three types of cones (red, green, blue). Explains

color mixing and most color blindness cases.
2. Opponent-Process Theory: Colors perceived in opposing pairs (red–
green, blue–yellow, black–white). Explains after-images and
complementary color phenomena.

 Both theories are needed for a complete understanding of color

perception.

 Higher-Level Visual Processes

o Form Perception (Gestalt Principles):

 Proximity: We group elements close together.
 Similarity: We group similar shapes or colors.
 Closure: We fill in gaps to perceive whole figures.
o Perceptual Constancies:
 Color Constancy: Objects appear the same color despite changes in
illumination.
 Size Constancy: Objects appear the same size even when their retinal
image changes with distance.
 Shape Constancy: Perceived shape remains stable despite changes in
orientation.
o Depth Perception Cues:
 Monocular Cues: Linear perspective, texture gradient, relative size,
interposition, light and shadow, motion parallax.
 Binocular Cues: Retinal disparity (each eye’s slightly different view),
convergence (degree to which eyes turn inward to focus on close
objects).

 Visual Illusions

o Müller-Lyer Illusion: Two identical lines appear different lengths due to

arrowhead orientations.
o Ponzo Illusion: Two equal horizontal lines appear different lengths when
placed between converging lines, due to perceived depth.
o Illustrate top-down processing: the brain’s use of context and past experience
to interpret ambiguous stimuli.

4. The Auditory System

  Nature of Sound
o Physical Properties: Sound is pressure waves characterized by amplitude
(loudness) and frequency (pitch).
o Amplitude: Height of the wave—louder sounds have greater amplitude. Hair
cells in the cochlea bend more in response to larger waves, triggering
increased neural firing.
o Frequency: Number of cycles per second (Hz).
 Place Theory: Pitch determined by where on the basilar membrane the
wave peaks (high frequencies near the oval window; low frequencies
toward the cochlear apex). Explains high-pitch perception.
 Frequency Theory: Pitch determined by the rate of auditory nerve
firing; neurons volley to overcome the 1,000-Hz firing limit,
accounting for lower pitches.
 Volley Principle: Groups of neurons take turns firing, allowing
perception of pitches up to ~20,000 Hz.
o Sound Localization: Based on interaural time difference (sound reaches nearer
ear first) and interaural intensity difference (sound louder in nearer ear),
creating a “sound shadow.” Humans lack movable pinnae, so turn heads to
help localize.
 Anatomy of the Ear

1. Outer Ear: Pinna collects sound → auditory canal → tympanic membrane

(eardrum).
2. Middle Ear: Ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes) amplify vibrations → oval
window.
3. Inner Ear: Cochlea (fluid-filled); hair cells on the basilar membrane transduce
vibrations into neural signals → auditory nerve → brainstem (medulla,
midbrain) → thalamus → primary auditory cortex (temporal lobes).

5. Other Senses

 Taste (Gustation)
o Chemical Sense: Molecules dissolve in saliva, interact with taste receptors in
taste buds.
o Basic Tastes: Sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami (savory).
o Sensitivity: Absolute threshold is low (very sensitive), but JND can be high
(hard to detect subtle flavor changes).
o Integration: Taste is influenced by smell and texture; olfactory deficits
severely reduce perceived flavor.
 Smell (Olfaction)
o Chemical Sense: Odorant molecules dissolve in nasal mucus and bind to
olfactory receptors in the olfactory epithelium.
o Pathway: Olfactory receptor cells → olfactory nerve → olfactory bulb (in
temporal lobe) → primary olfactory cortex (bypasses thalamus) → limbic
system (explains strong link between smell, emotion, and memory).
o Anosmia: Loss of smell—impacts taste and quality of life; can result from
head injury, aging, or illness.
o Humans have relatively poor olfactory acuity compared to many animals.
 Touch and Pain (Somatosensation)
 o Receptors: Embedded in skin, muscles, and joints; detect pressure,
temperature, vibration, pain.
o Pain Processing:
 Gate Control Theory: Pain signals pass through “gates” (spinal cord
synapses) that can enhance or inhibit transmission to the brain.
 Cognitive factors (attention, expectation) and non-painful stimuli (e.g.,
rubbing the area) can close the gate, reducing pain perception.
 Congenital Analgesia: Rare condition of being unable to feel pain—
dangerous because pain normally protects from injury.
o Kinaesthetic Sense: Proprioception—sensations from muscles, tendons, joints
inform the brain about limb position and movement; processed in
somatosensory cortex and cerebellum.
o Vestibular Sense: Balance and head movement detected by fluid shifts in
semicircular canals of the inner ear; information sent to brainstem and
cerebellum.

6. Alternative Perspectives on Perception

 Critique of Purely Neurobiological Views

o Traditional models posit that perception is simply the brain’s processing of
sensory input (“the brain sees”).
o Critics argue this overlooks social, cultural, and ideological influences on how
stimuli are interpreted.
o Example: Race-based perceptual biases (e.g., black men perceived as larger or
more threatening by police) cannot be explained solely by neural processes;
cultural context and historical power dynamics play crucial roles.
o Phenomenological Orientation: Emphasizes that perception is inherently
subjective and shaped by individual lived experience, culture, and power
structures.

Week 12: Memory

1. Defining Memory

 Core Definition
o Memory = the mind’s capacity to encode, store, and retrieve information;
encompasses personal experiences, facts, and skills.
 Case Study: Nosipho
o Struggled with rote memorization in school; learned effective memory
strategies (visualization, mnemonics, elaborative rehearsal).
o Demonstrates that memory can be improved by meaningful encoding rather
than simple repetition.

2. Information-Processing and Memory Models

 Information-Processing (IP) Approach

o Compares memory to computer operations:
 1. Input (Acquisition)
2. Storage
3. Retrieval (Output)
o Memory success depends on encoding quality and appropriate retrieval cues.
 Atkinson & Shiffrin Two-Store (Multi-Store) Model

1. Sensory Register: Brief storage of sensory impressions (visual, auditory)

lasting milliseconds. If attended to, information moves to short-term memory
(STM).
2. Short-Term Memory: Limited capacity (≈7±2 items) lasting several seconds;
maintenance rehearsal (repetition) can prolong duration.
3. Long-Term Memory: Seemingly limitless capacity and duration; retrieved into
awareness as needed. Elaborative rehearsal (linking new information to
existing knowledge) enhances encoding into LTM.

 Baddeley & Hitch Working Memory Model

o Emphasizes active processing rather than passive storage. Components:
1. Central Executive: Supervises attention, allocates resources, and
coordinates subsidiary systems.
2. Phonological Loop: Processes auditory and verbal information (spoken
and written language).
3. Visuospatial Sketchpad: Holds visual and spatial data (images, maps).
4. Episodic Buffer: Integrates information across domains and links
working memory to long-term memory.
 Primacy and Recency Effects
o Primacy: Superior recall for items at the beginning of a list (encoded into
LTM).
o Recency: Superior recall for items at the end of a list (still in STM).
o Demonstrate the distinction between STM and LTM processes.

3. Forgetting

 Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

o Rapid initial forgetting soon after learning, followed by a slower decline.
 Causes of Forgetting

1. Decay (Spontaneous Fading): Traces weaken over time if not reactivated.

2. Interference:
 Proactive Interference: Old memories hinder encoding new
information (e.g., old phone number prevents learning a new one).
 Retroactive Interference: New memories impede retrieval of old
information (e.g., new password causes forgetting of old password).
3. Retrieval Failure: Information stored in LTM but cannot be accessed without
proper cues.

4. Long-Term Memory Categories

 Explicit (Declarative) Memory

1. Episodic Memory: Memory for personal events and experiences
(autobiographical).
 2. Semantic Memory: Memory for facts and general knowledge (e.g., definitions,
historical dates).
3. Gist Memory: Memory for the general essence of events rather than detailed
specifics.
 Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory

o Procedural Memory: Skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike, typing on a

keyboard).
o Often acquired through repetition and practiced automatically without
conscious awareness.

 Photographic (Hyperthymestic) Memory

o Rare individuals can recall vast amounts of information (e.g., digits of pi,
entire books).
o Typically employs advanced mnemonic techniques (visual imagery, multi-
sensory encoding, associative strategies).
o May come at the cost of abstract thinking or emotional nuance.

5. Strategies for Enhancing Memory

 Elaborative Rehearsal
o Connecting new information to existing schemas (mental frameworks) for
deeper encoding.
o Example: Learning WWII dates by linking them to significant events already
stored in LTM.
 Chunking
o Grouping individual elements into larger, meaningful units (e.g., phone
numbers broken into area code, prefix, and line number).
 Mnemonics
o Memory aids that use visualization, acronyms, or rhymes to link new
information to existing knowledge.
 Schemas (Bartlett’s Concept)
o Preexisting mental structures that organize knowledge and guide the encoding
and retrieval of information.
o People recall more detail when new information fits their existing schemas
(e.g., sports fans remember more game details than nonfans).

6. Accuracy and Constructive Nature of Memory

 Reconstruction
o Memory is not a perfect recording—it is rebuilt from fragments and
influenced by beliefs, expectations, and suggestions.
o Elizabeth Loftus’s Research: Eyewitness testimony can be altered by leading
questions (e.g., “smashed” vs. “hit”) and post-event misinformation effects.
 Ecological Approach to Memory (Ulric Neisser)
o Argues for studying memory in real-life contexts rather than artificial lab
tasks.
 o Emphasizes that memory functions to support adaptive behavior in everyday
environments.
 Context-Dependent Memory
o Retrieval is better when the learning and testing environments match (e.g.,
same room, same scent, similar emotional state).
o Example: A vanilla scent present during learning can serve as a retrieval cue
later.
 Social-Cultural Influences
o Cultural norms shape how and what we remember:
 Swazi herdsmen excel at remembering cattle but may perform poorly
on verbal list tasks.
 Mayan children may withhold personal stories unless prompted in
culturally appropriate ways.
o Autobiographical memory is constructed through dialogue in many non-
Western cultures, rather than as an individual “inner narrative.”
 Multiple Perspectives on Memory Construction

1. Context-Based Accounts (“Dean’s Car”): A single event (car accident) can be

recounted differently depending on audience and purpose—father, friends, or
police each hear a different version. Demonstrates that memory is socially
constructed and dynamic.
2. Critical View (Edwards & Potter): Argues there is no “objective truth” in
memory—every recollection is shaped by the speaker’s goals, social context,
and power relations. Memory is an active, rhetorical process rather than a
passive retrieval of facts.

7. Exceptional Memory: Innate vs. Learned

 London Taxi-Driver Study (Woollett et al., 2009)

o Taxi drivers train extensively to memorize London’s complex street layout
(“The Knowledge”).
o Structural brain differences: Enlarged posterior hippocampus correlates with
navigational expertise.
o Demonstrates plasticity—intensive practice can alter brain structure—but
specialization may come at the expense of other memory domains (e.g., poorer
verbal memory).

8. Decolonial View of Memory (Malose Makhuvela)

 Critique of Western Medical Model

o Western frameworks (IP model, purely cognitive/neurobiological) are limited
in explaining collective and historical dimensions of memory, especially in
post-colonial contexts.
o Emphasizes that memory is embedded in power relations, ancestral legacies,
and communal practices.
 Types of Memory in Decolonial Model

1. Individual Memory: Personal life stories, habits, and contexts.

 2. Collective/Communal Memory: Shared histories, traditions, and cultural
narratives passed through community rituals.
3. Historical Memory: How collective history is constructed, contested, and
recorded (e.g., narratives of apartheid in South Africa).
4. Contested Memory: The intersection of personal, social, and political
memories; used in processes of healing and reconciliation (e.g., Truth and
Reconciliation Commission in post-apartheid South Africa).

Key Concepts Glossary (Selected)

 Information-Processing (IP) Approach: Memory as sequential stages—input,
storage, output—akin to computer functions.
 Sensory Register: Very brief (<1 second) storage of sensory impressions; if attended
to, moves to STM.
 Short-Term Memory (STM): Limited capacity; holds information currently in
awareness; lasts a few seconds unless rehearsed.
 Long-Term Memory (LTM): Vast capacity; stores information over long durations;
retrieval depends on cues and context.
 Working Memory (Baddeley & Hitch): Active system for processing and
manipulating information; consists of central executive, phonological loop,
visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer.
 Explicit (Declarative) Memory: Conscious recall of facts and events; includes
episodic and semantic memory.
 Implicit (Procedural) Memory: Unconscious memory for skills and procedures.
 Primacy and Recency Effects: Enhanced recall for first and last items in a list,
respectively—evidence for distinct memory stores.
 Forgetting Curve: Rapid initial forgetting that gradually plateaus over time
(Ebbinghaus).
 Interference: Competition between new and old information (proactive vs.
retroactive).
 Schemas: Cognitive frameworks that organize and interpret information; influence
perception and memory.
 Context-Dependent Memory: Recall is improved when retrieval context matches
learning context (environment, internal state, or cues).
 Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers (e.g., serotonin, dopamine, ACh) that
transmit signals between neurons across synapses.
 Hemispheric Lateralization: Functional specialization of left (language, logic) and
right (spatial, creative) hemispheres; connected by corpus callosum.
 Split-Brain Patients: Individuals whose corpus callosum has been severed; reveal
independent hemisphere processing and specialization.
 Photographic (Hyperthymestic) Memory: Exceptional ability to recall vast details;
often involves mnemonic strategies and structural brain differences.
 Decolonial Memory: Emphasizes social, cultural, historical, and political contexts;
critiques purely cognitive or biological models.
Conclusion
This document (Weeks 8–12) provides an integrated overview of:

1. Biological and Neuropsychological Foundations (Week 8)

o Brain anatomy, CNS/PNS organization, neuron/neurotransmitter function,
endocrine system, and foundational research methods.
2. Split-Brain Phenomena and Lateralization (Week 9)
o Corpus callosotomy, hemispheric specialization, and perceptual asymmetries.
3. Sensation and Perception (Week 10)
o Definitions of sensation vs perception, psychophysical methods, visual and
auditory systems, other sensory modalities (taste, smell, touch, pain, balance),
higher-order perceptual processes (Gestalt principles, illusions, constancies),
and critiques emphasizing cultural and contextual influences.
4. Memory (Week 12)
o Models of memory (multi-store, working memory), memory processes
(encoding, storage, retrieval), categories of long-term memory (explicit,
implicit), mechanisms of forgetting, strategies to enhance memory, the
constructive and contextual nature of memory, and diverse perspectives
(exceptional memory cases, ecological and decolonial approaches).

Throughout, real-life case studies (e.g., Melinda’s Granny, H.M., Mr. S., Zazetsky, and
Nosipho) illustrate how brain structures and cultural contexts shape behavior, perception, and
memory. These chapters underscore that understanding human behavior requires both
biological/neuropsychological insight and appreciation for social, cultural, and historical
contexts.