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EC : ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATIONS

IN : INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING
EE : ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Module 6 : Control Systems

INDEX
Sr. Pg.
Contents Topics
No. No.
1. Basic Control System Components
Notes Definitions of Important Terms 1
Classification of Control Systems 2
Introduction to Control Systems 2
Controller Components 3
Electric Actuators 4
Servomotors (AC/DC) 4
DC Tachogenerator 13
AC Tachometer 13
Potentiometer 14
Synchros 17
Stepper Motor 19
Types of Control System 21
List of Formulae 25
LMR(Last Minute Revision) 25
Assignment1 Questions 27
Test Paper1 Questions 30
2. Transfer Function, Block Diagram Reduction and Signal Flow Graph
Notes Transfer Function 33
Continuous System Time Response 34
Poles and Zeros Transfer Function 35
Block Diagram Reduction 39
Signal Flow Graph (SFG) Representation 54
List of Formulae 63
LMR(last Minute Revision) 64
Assignment2 Questions 66
Test Paper2 Questions 73
3. Time Response
Notes Differential Equation 78
Standard Test Inputs 80
Analysis of First Order Systems 82
Analysis of Second Order Systems 85
Application of Second Order System- RLC Circuit 93
Typical Time Response of Underdamped
2nd Order System and Transient Response 95
Specifications
Determination of Steady state errors and Error
100
Constants
List of Formulae 103
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 106
Assignment3 Questions 107
Test Paper 3 Questions 110
4. Stability Analysis
Notes Introduction 113
Necessary Condition for Stability 115
Routh’s Hurwitz Stability Criterion 116
Relative Stability Analysis 124
Root Locus 124
List of Formulae 133
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 133
Assignment  4 Questions 135
Test Paper 4 Questions 140
5. Frequency Response Analysis
Notes Introduction 143
Types of Specification 143
Correlation Between Transient Response and
146
Frequency Response
Frequency Response 148
Nyquist Stability Criterion 149
Stability Analysis 150
Conditional Stability System 154
Relative Stability of a System 154
Phase Margin and Gain Margin 155
Polar Plot 155
Bode Diagrams 165
Minimum Phase Systems and NonMinimum
173
Phase Systems
List of Formulae 177
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 177
Assignment5 Questions 178
Test Paper 5 Questions 184
6. Control System Compensators and Controllers
Notes Compensation Technique 187
Controllers 193
List of Formulae 194
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 195
Assignment  6 Questions 196
Test Paper  6 Questions 200
7. Mathematical Modelling and State Space Analysis
Notes Introduction to Mathematical Modelling 203
Mechanical Systems 203
Electrical Systems 207
Analogoue Systems 208
Concepts of State Space Representation 211
State Space Representation Using Physical
218
Variables
Controllability and Observability (Only for EC & IN) 219
List of Formulae 221
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 222
Assignment7 Questions 224
Test Paper7 Questions 229
Practice Problems 234
SOLUTIONS
Answer Key 255
Assignment
Model Solutions 257
Answer Key 288
Test Paper
Model Solutions 290
Answer Key 313
Practice Problems
Model Solutions 314
 Topic 1 : Basic Control System Components

DEFINITIONS OF IMPORTANT TERMS

Plants
A plant is a piece of equipment, perhaps just a set of machine parts functioning together,
the purpose of which is to perform a particular operation.
Systems
A system is a combination of components that act together and perform a certain
objective.
Disturbance
A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect the value of the output of a
system.
Feedback control
Feedback control refers to an operation that, in the presence of disturbances, tends to
reduce the difference between the output of a system and some reference input and that
does so on the basis of this difference.
Servo Systems
A servo system (or servomechanism) is a feedback control system in which the output is
some mechanical position, velocity, or acceleration.
Automatic Regulating Systems
An automatic regulating system is a feedback control system in which the reference input
or the desired output is either constant or slowly varying with time and in which the
primary task is to maintain the actual output at the desired value in the presence of
disturbances.

Closed−loop Control Systems

Feedback control systems are often referred to as closed−loop control systems.
Open−loop Control Systems
Those systems in which the output has no effect on the control action are called
open−loop control systems.
Adaptive Control Systems
Adaptation implies the ability to self−adjust or self−modify in accordance with
unpredictable changes in conditions of environment or structure. The control system
having a candid ability of adaptation (that is, the control system itself detects changes in
the plant parameters and makes necessary adjustments to the controller parameters in
order to maintain an optimal performance) is called the adaptive control system.

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Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

Linear versus Nonlinear Control Systems
For linear systems, the principle of superposition applies. Those systems for which this
principle does not apply are nonlinear systems. Most real life control system have non
linear characteristics to some extent.

Time−invariant versus Time−varying Control Systems

A time invariant control system (constant coefficient control system) is one whose
parameters do not vary with time. A time−varying control system is a system in which one
or more parameters vary with time. The response depends on the time at which an input
is applied.
Continuous−time versus Discrete−time Control Systems
In a continuous−time control system, all system variables are functions of a continuous
time t. A discrete−time control system involves one or more variables that are known only
at discrete instants of time.

Single−input, Single−output versus Multiple −input, Multiple−output Control

Systems
A system may have one input and one output. Such a system is called a single−input,
single−output control system. Some systems may have multiple inputs and multiple
outputs.
Lumped−parameter versus Distributed−parameter Control Systems
Control systems that can be described by ordinary differential equations are
lumped−parameter control systems, whereas distributed−parameter control systems are
those that may be described by partial differential equations.
Deterministic versus Stochastic Control Systems
A control system is deterministic if the response to input is predictable and repeatable. If
not, the control system is a stochastic control system.

INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS

A closed loop control system consists of three basic elements : the feedback element,
controller and controlled system.
The controller consists of error detector and control elements.
error
Input actuating Control Controlled Output
+
− signal elements System (controlled)

feedback Feedback
signal element

GATE/EC/CS/SLP/Module_6/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.2
 Basic Control System Components

The control element manipulates the actuating signal preferably to different

power stage so as to fed to the controlled system.

Note :
The power stage in control elements is essential for the control signal to drive controlled
system.
Control elements plays a vital role to get the desired output.

CONTROLLER COMPONENTS

They can be classified in three kinds

→ Sensors
→ Differencing and amplification
→ Actuators
1. Sensors
• low power transducers
• controlled variable
• employed for position, velocity, measurement etc.

2. Differencing and amplification

• to get error signal and amplification to suitable level
• OPAMP is used for differencing input and feedback signals.
• SCR is used for different power stages

3. Actuators
• It is a device whose output is mechanical motion
• It performs variety of tasks to manipulate the controlled process or plant. For
example open/close a valve in a plant.

Actuators are classified as :

Actuators

Pneumatic Actuators Electric Actuators Hydraulic Actuators

Electric actuators have inherent flexibility in electrical power transmission and have linear
speed torque characteristics which is desired. Hence among all the actuators, electric
actuators are widely used.

For low speed and high torque applications, hydraulic actuators are used.

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Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

ELECTRIC ACTUATORS
Electric Actuators

DC motors AC motors Stepper motors

In lower power ratings, these are called as Servomotors.

− DC motors are costlier than AC motors. This is because of additional cost of

communications gear.
− DC motors have linearity of characteristics, higher stalled torque/ inertia ratio.

Higher torque/ inertia ratio indicates dynamic response of the motor.

Electric actuators for stepped motion are known as Stepper motors.

SERVOMOTORS (AC/DC)
Servomotors :
The commonly used power devices in electrical control systems are AC and DC
servomotors. AC servomotors are ideally suited for Low Power application. They are
rugged, light in weight and have no brush contacts.
AC Servomotor
It is basically two phase induction motor

Main
Winding Rotor

Control
Winding

The stator windings are oriented 90° apart. Hence this results into magnetic field of
constant magnitude rotating at synchronous speed.

The direction of rotation depends upon phase relationship of voltages V1

and V2 Because of magnetic field, voltage is induced resulting into current
in rotor. This current produces torque in the rotor.

GATE/EC/CS/SLP/Module_6/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.4
 Basic Control System Components

Torque Speed Characteristics

where Rotor reactance : X

Rotor resistance : R

X
ratio is generally high to obtain maximum starting torque, stable
R
operation and to get linear torque−speed characteristics.

If symmetrical components are used, then the starting torque is proportional to E, (rms
value of the sinusoidal voltage).

Fig. Servomotor characteristics

Note :

In low speed region, the curves are nearly linear and equidistant.
It reveals :

• Slope of torque speed characteristic reduces as control phase voltage decreases.

• Torque speed slope in low speed region is nearly one half the slope at rated voltage.
Approximations
1) The curves are approximated to linear characteristics. This approximation is valid as
the motor rarely operates at high speeds.
2) The torque is proportional to applied voltage. Since the T−N curves are assumed
linear and proportional to applied voltage, these curves are equally spaced.
The motor torque Tm is given by,
dθ
Tm = ktm E + m
dt

GATE/EC/CS/SLP/Module_6/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.5
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

TM
Actuating
Signal
Servo
Amplifier Rotor J.B.

Control
Phase Reference
Phase
dθ
where E → control voltage , → speed
dt
It’s Laplace is
Tm(s) = ktm E(s) − ms θ(s)
The load has J and B components
∴ TL = (Js2 + Bs) θ(s)
As Motor drives this load
Tm = TL
ktm E(s) − ms θ(s) = (Js2 + Bs) θ(s)

θ(s)
To get is the objective.
E(s)
∴ ktm E(s) = (Js2 + Bs + ms) θ(s)
θ(s) k tm k tm
∴ = =
E(s) (Js + B + m)s ⎧ Js ⎫
s(B + m) ⎨1 + ⎬
⎩ B + m⎭
k tm Jm
Put km = and τm =
(B + m) (B + m)
θ(s) km
∴ =
E(s) 1 + s τm
The SFG is easily given from following rearrangement.
θ(s) kt m k tm / Js2
= =
E(s) Js2 + (B + m) s ⎛m+B⎞
1− ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Js ⎠
k ⎛m+B⎞
It has one forward path of gain tm2 and loop gain ⎜ ⎟ shown in figure (a) below.
Js ⎝ Js ⎠
The term m contributes to negative slope. This improves friction and improves stability.
It is called internal damping of 2 phase AC servomotor.
The characteristics are easily determined by two tests. See fig.(a) below.
1) Blocked Rotor Test → (Speed = 0)
2) No load test → (Load torque = 0)

GATE/EC/CS/SLP/Module_6/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.6
 Basic Control System Components

1 1
s 2 θ(s) S S
E(s) θ(s) Fig. (a)
K tm Sθ(s)
J
m−B
−
J

Blocked Rotor
Torque

Fig. (b)

Speed
No Load Speed
Fig. Permanent magnet dc motor (PMDC)

Blocked Rotor Torque at Rated voltage

k tm =
Rated Control voltage

Blocked rotor torque at rated voltage

m = −
No load speed

DC Servomotors
These are constructed with permanent magnets which results into higher torque / inertia
ratio and also higher operating frequency.
The DC servomotors can be again classified into 3 types
→ The dc servomotors in which magnetic field is produced by permanent magnet then
magnetic flux is constant and it is called as permanent magnetic DC Servomotor.
→ The dc servomotors in which output is controlled by armature current is called as
armature controlled DC servomotor.
→ The dc servomotors in which armature current is maintained constant and field is
controlled by armature current is called as field controlled DC servomotor.
But providing a constant current source is more difficult than providing constant voltage
source.

The time constants of the field−controlled dc motor is large than that of

armature controlled because of requirement of constant armature current.

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Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

Three types of construction employed in Permanent magnet DC servomotors are shown

below

(a) Slotted armature type (b) Surface wound armature type

Fig (a) : armature is slotted with DC winding placed inside these slots.
Fig (b) : winding placed on armature to reduce high inertia accounted in figure (a)
Fig (c) : winding placed on a non magnetic cylinder which rotates in annular space
between PM stator and stationary rotor.

(a) Armature controlled dc servomotor:

Ra La

eb θ
ea T J
ia
b

if = constant
Ra = armature resistance (Ω)
La = armature inductance (H)
ia = armature current (A)
if = field current (A)
ea = applied armature voltage (V)
eb = back emf (V)
θ = angular displacement of motor shaft (radian)
T = Torque by motor (Nm)
J = Equivalent moment of inertia of the motor and load referred to motor shaft
(kg m2)
b = Equivalent viscous friction coefficient (Nm/rad/sec)

GATE/EC/CS/SLP/Module_6/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.8
 Basic Control System Components

The torque is directly proportional to product of armature current and flux in air gap ( ψ )
Also flux is directly proportional to field current.
∴ φ = K 1 if (By convention, φ is used for flux & ψ is used for flux linkages)
T = K 2 ia φ
= K1 K 2 ia if φ
∴ T = K ia [∵ for constant field current, flux is constant ]
When armature is rotating, voltage proportional to the product of flux and angular
velocity is induced in armature. But flux is constant.
dθ
∴ eb = K 4 ….(1)
dt
eb = back emf (K4 = Kb : back emf constant )
The differential equation for armature circuit is,
di
L a a + Ra ia + eb = ea ….(2)
dt
The torque equation can be given as
d2 θ dθ
T = J 2 +b = K ⋅ ia ….(3)
dt dt
By taking the Laplace transform of above equations (1), (2), (3) then block diagram
can be constructed as shown below.

It reveals :
• Armature controlled dc servomotor is a feedback system.
• Effect of back emf is the feedback system.
• Back emf increases with effective damping of system.

The transfer function is given as

θ(s) K
= …(4)
Ea (s) s ⎡L a Js + (L aB + Ra J) s + RaB + K Kb ⎤
2
⎣ ⎦

It reveals :
1
• term indicates system posses integrating property
s
• Time constant of motor is smaller for smaller Ra and smaller J.

GATE/EC/CS/SLP/Module_6/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.9
Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

If La is small and neglected then transfer function becomes

θ(s) Ks
= …(5)
Ea (s) s(Ts s + 1)
K K
where K s = = motor gain constant =
Ra b + K Kb K
Ra ⎛⎜ B + K b ⎞
⎝ Ra ⎟⎠
JRa J
Ts = = motor time constant=
(RaB + K Kb ) ⎛ B + K Kb ⎞
⎜ t Ra ⎟⎠
⎝

With small J, Ra reduced, the motor time constant approaches zero and
motor acts as an ideal integrator.

(b) Field Controlled D.C. Motor

Field Controlled d.c. motor is shown in figure (a) & (b) below.
Rf
ie = constant

Lf 1 K2
e TM θ(s)
if E(S) Lf s + R f lfs s(Js + B)

j, f
In this system,
Rf = Field winding resistance (ohms)
Lf = field winding inductance (henrys)
e = field control voltages (volts)
if = field current (amperes)
TM = torque developed by motor (newton-m)
J = equivalent moment of inertia of motor and load referred to motor shaft (kg-m2)
B = equivalent viscous friction coefficient of motor and load referred to motor shaft
⎛ newton − m ⎞
⎜ rad / sec ⎟
⎝ ⎠
θ = angular displacement of motor shaft (rad)

In the field controlled motor, the armature current is fed from a constant current
source. Therefore, Tm = k1 ff if ia = k1′ tf where k1′ is a constant.

GATE/EC/CS/SLP/Module_6/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.10
 Basic Control System Components

The equation for the field circuit is :

di
Lf f + R f if = e ……(6)
dt
The torque equation is :

d2 θ dθ
J 2
+B = TM = kr ' if ……(7)
dt dt
Taking the Laplace transform of equations (6) & (7). Assuming zero initial conditions,
we get
(Lf s + Rf) If (s) = E(s) ……(8)
(J s2 + Bs) θ(s) = TM (s) = kr′ I f(s) ……(9)
From the above equations, the transfer function of the motor is obtained as :

θ(s) Kr '
=
E(s) s(L f s + R f ) (Js + B)
Km
= ……(10)
⎛ τ ⎞
s ⎜ s + 1( τme s + 1) ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Km
=
s (1 + sτf )(1 + sτm )

where Km = Kr′ / Rf B = motor gain constant,

τf = Lf/Rf = time constant of field circuit and
τm = J/B = mechanical time constant

The block diagram of the field controlled d.c. motor obtained from eqns. (8) and (9)
as given in fig.(b) above.

For small size motors field control is advantageous because only a low power servo
amplifier is required while the armature current which is not large can be supplied
from an inexpensive constant current amplifier. For large size motors it is on the
whole cheaper to use armature control scheme. Further in armature controlled
motor, back emf contributes additional damping over and above that of provided by
load friction.

D.C. & A.C. Position Control :

In control systems DC signal refers to unmodulated signals. AC signal refers to

modulated signals. These definition differ from our normal meaning of AC/DC.
Considering a servo voltage stabilizer.

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Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

a) A typical DC position Control applied to servo stabilizer

The secondary winding variable tap position is driven by dc. servomotor. The
feedback potentiometer wiper is similarly rotated by same θ as variable tapping.
Suppose Reference voltage is higher than feedback voltage. This drives the motor in
one direction. This causes wiper mounted on servomotor shaft to move, and output
voltage increases. Simultaneously feedback voltage also rises as potentiometer turns
moves in the direction towards reference value. The error decreases and will be zero
when both these voltages are equal. At this moment, the motor stops rotating and
further corrections are stopped.Thus the motor is driven by error voltage. The
direction depends on the polarity of error.

Feedback Reference
Potentiometer E
+
θn Amplifier M

To Load
θL

Secondary Of Stabilizer
Mechanical Linkage
b) A.C. Position Control :

In a.c. position control, the dc servomotor of above figure is replaced by A.C.

servomotor. Again the error voltage drives the motor and polarity of error decides the
CW or CCW sense of rotation. At zero error, control voltage is zero, so 2 phase ac
servomotor cannot rotate. [see fig. below].

GATE/EC/CS/SLP/Module_6/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.12
 Basic Control System Components

DC TACHOGENERATOR
Permanent magnet DC servomotor when coupled to a rotating shaft would generate
voltage proportional to speed.

Tachogenerator is also known as Tachometer. It is an another method for

improving the performance of the servo system.

It can be viewed as a transducer, converting the velocity of shaft proportional to dc

voltage.

• The DC Tachometer provides visual speed readout of a rotating shaft.

• Such tachometers are directly connected to a voltmeter which is calibrated in r.p.m.
• Permanent magnet tachometers are compact, efficient and reliable but have high
inertia. To reduce inertia of rotors ironless rotors can be used.
• Permanent magnet units are compensated with temperature sensitive magnetic
shunts that divert portion of pole flux according to temperature variation to maintain
linear relationship between speed and the generated voltages.

Advantages

i) Generated voltages are free from undesirable waveforms and phase shifts
ii) No residual voltage is present at zero speed
iii) Possible to generate very high voltage gradients in small size.
iv) Can easily be compressed for temperature changes.
v) Can be used with high pass output filters to reduce servo velocity tags.

AC TACHOMETER

• For an A.C. tachometer, a sinusoidal voltage of rated value is applied to the primary
winding which is also known as reference winding.

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Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

• The secondary winding is placed at a 90° mechanically apart in space from the
primary winding.

• When rotor shaft is rotated, the magnitude of the sinusoidal output voltage eT will be
proportional to rotor speed. Thus, when the rotor shaft is stationary, the output
voltage is zero. The phase of the output voltage is determined by direction of rotation.

The transfer function of an a.c. tachometer is,

dθ
e(t) = K
dt

E (s)
i.e. = Ks
θ (s)

where E(s) → Laplace Transform of output voltage

θ(s) → Laplace Transform of the rotor position
K → constant
OR
Eo = KT . ω
Where KT = Tachometer constant V/rpm
ω = Shaft speed in rad/sec.

Even though the output of an ac tachometer is an a.c. voltage, then also tachometer can
be used in a d.c. servomechanism.
Because : If the output a.c. voltage is converted into a dc voltage by use of a
demodulator.

In servomechanism a.c. tachometer generators are used to provide the

output rate damping.

Advantages
i) A.C. Tachometer can be used as speed measuring devices.
ii) Also, A.C tachometer can be used as electro mechanical integrator in analog
computers

POTENTIOMETER
These are the devices used for measuring mechanical displacement. Potentiometer is a
position electromechanical transducer that converts mechanical voltage into an electrical
voltage. The input is in form of mechanical displacement either translatory linear or
angular. A potentiometer is a simple voltage divider with three terminals. But two
terminals are fixed and third is movable.

GATE/EC/CS/SLP/Module_6/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.14
 Basic Control System Components

The voltage output across the movable terminal

and reference is proportional to the displacement.
But the linear relationship is affected by the
magnitude of load.

Potentiometer Characteristics

When the housing of potentiometer is fixed at reference, the output voltage e(t) will be
proportional to the shaft position θc ( t ) in case of a rotary motion then
e ( t ) = k s θc ( t )
where ks is the proportionality constant.
For N turn potentiometer value of ks is given by,
V
ks = V / rad
2πN
V
kS = V / rad
θmax
V = magnitude of reference voltage

This type allows the comparison of 2 remotely located shaft positions. The output voltage
is taken across the variable terminals of the 2 potentiometers.
Output e ( t ) = k s ⎡⎣ θ1 ( t ) − θ2 ( t ) ⎤⎦
Block diagram representation of the above two setups are shown below

Ks Fig(1)
θc(t) e(t)

±
Ks Fig(2)
θ1(t) e(t)
€

θ2(t)

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Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

Characteristics of Precision Potentiometer:

Performance of a precision potentiometer is specified by following characteristics

i) Resolution
It is the smallest incremental change that is possible in a potentiometers. It is the
ratio of minimum change in output voltage to a total voltage applied to it.
For wire wound potentiometer it is per turn voltage.
ΔVo 100
% Resolution = × 100 =
Vi Number of turns

Δ Vo = Change in output voltage

Vi = Input voltage applied

The range of resolution is between 0.5 to 0.002 %

Potentiometer with uniformly spread resistance, resolution is infinite.

ii) Linearity
It is defined as the maximum deviation of actual curve from theoretical curve
expressed as a percentage of applied voltage.
ΔVmax deviation in resistance
% Linearity = × 100 = × 100
Vi actual resistance

The range of linearity lies between 0.5 to 5.0 %

iii) Life
Life is defined as maximum number of cycles of operation in which none of electrical
characteristics depart from normal values by more than 50%.

iv) Noise

Noise indicates presence of various voltages. Noise is due to ripple caused by

vibration, stray capacitances, etc.

v) Loading error

As soon as the load is connected across the potentiometer, then the resistance of the
potentiometer gets affected. This effect causes error in its output which is called as
loading error.

GATE/EC/CS/SLP/Module_6/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.16
 Basic Control System Components

Loading in Potentiometers

Let RL be the resistance of the load connected to potentiometer and α be the setting ratio
as shown in the figure.

The output voltage E0 is given by

αVi
E0 =
α (1 − α ) R T
1+
RL

The loading error is,

αVi
Error = αVi −
⎡ α (1 − α ) R T ⎤
⎢1 + RL ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ ⎤
⎢ α 2 (1 − α ) ⎥
Error = ⎢ ⎥ Vi
⎢ RL ⎥
⎢ α (1 − α ) + R ⎥
⎣ T ⎦

SYNCHROS

An example of electromagnetic transducer that converts angular position of a shaft into

electric signal is a synchros. It is also known as selsyn or autosyn.
Synchro Transmitter
Rotors
In a synchro − transmitter, the
construction is similar to alternator.
Here rotor is dumb bell shaped and
mounted with concentric coil. The
stator is a 3 φ winding spaced 120°
apart in space from each other. See
fig. (a).

Fig. (a)

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Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

The rotor is given 1 phase a.c. supply. The

voltage induced in each stator winding is
proportional to cos θ as shown in figure (b). If
reference voltage to rotor is :
vr = V sin ω t
Then stator voltages w.r.t. neutral are :
V1n = kV sin ωt cos (θ + 120)
V2n = kV sin ω t cos (θ)
V3n = kV sin ωt cos (θ + 240) ……(1)

Since the 3 terminals are accessible : Fig (b)

Vs1, s2 = V1n − V2n = kV sin ωt cos (θ + 120 −cos (θ))

Vs1, s2 = 3 k V sin ω t sin (θ + 240)

Vs2, s3 = 3 kV sin ωt sin (θ + 120) ……(2)

Vs3, s1 = 3 kV sin ωt sin (θ).

At θ = 0, Vs3, 1 = 0 and this is electrical zero of transformer.

The synchro transmitter is thus like a single phase transformer with rotor as primary and 3
winding secondary. The voltages are in time phase, but with different magnitudes depending
on θ. Thus a rotor position θ reflects as voltage in stator side.

Synchro Transmitter Receiver

When both rotors are excited by same input, both secondary also are tied, as shown in
fig. below, then the rotor angular position will be followed by other rotor as per the first
rotor.
Here Master rotor is rotated by θ1 and slave also will move by similar amount θ1.
− here rotor applied voltage, rotor angle and secondary voltages are the parameters.

→ In a control transformer, first two are fixed in transmitter. The rotor secondary
(stator) voltage and rotor angle are fixed in receiver. Thus rotor voltage will
change.

→ In transmitter receiver rotor voltages and stator voltages are same in both.
Hence rotor position will follow.

It is used in detecting wind direction and other applications where change of angular
position is seen.

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 Basic Control System Components

Fig.: Synchro Transmitter

STEPPER MOTOR
A stepper motor is widely used in computer peripherals like printers, tape drives etc. It is
basically an electromagnetic device. It actuates movements, linear or angular, for a train
of input pulses. One pulse gives one unit movement. The number of pulses gives the
required number of movements desired.
Constructionally, there are two types of stepper motors.
1) Variable Reluctance Motor
2) Permanent Magnet Motor
The variable reluctance motor is taken up for discussion. It consists of one or several
stacks of stators and rotors. The rotors are mounted on a single shaft. The stators have
common frame. Fig. (a) and fig. (b) gives the two views of the stator−rotor arrangements
in a stepper motor.

Fig. (a) Fig. (b)

Longitudinal Cross Sectional view of End view of stator & rotor of a multistack
3 stack variable reluctance stepper. variable reluctance stepper motor.

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The stator and rotor are of same size. The train of

input pulses excite the stator. The rotor is not
excited. As shown in figure, when the stator is
excited, the rotor is pulled to a minimum reluctance
position. The position occurs when the stator or rotor
are aligned.

Fig. : Developed view of teeth

of pair of stator − rotor
The position for θ = 0° is a stable
position. The static torque acting on
the rotor is a function of θ. The stators
and rotors are aligned at θ = 0° and
180°
θ = where T is the number of
T
rotor teeth. The latter value of θ is
unstable and a slight deviation aligns
the rotor at θ = 0°. Any deviation for
θ = 0°, brings it back to the same
position. Hence this position is a Fig. Static torque angle curve of
stable position. Fig. refers to the stepper motor
static torque angle curve.

When there are multiple stacks of a stator for a rotor with all teeth aligned, each stator
360°
has an angular displacement given by α = . Here n = number of stacks.
nT
360°
If T = 12 and n = 3, α = Fig. below gives this diagram.
3.12

Fig. Developed view of stator−rotor stacks

If phase sequence is a-b-c-a-b-c … then rotor moves 10° per pulse for the case
considered. If phase sequence is changed to b-a-c-b-a-c … then the rotor moves 10°, in
opposite direction for each pulse.

GATE/EC/CS/SLP/Module_6/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.20
 Basic Control System Components

Use of Stepper Motor in Control System :

Stepper Motors are used in open loop or closed loop mode.

Programmed Stepper Load

Computer Logic driver
Input motor

Fig. (a) Open loop mode

Fig. : (b) Closed loop mode

In open loop or closed loop, this is one device that gives same accuracy. This is because
the angular displacement exactly equals the number of pulses given. So no feedback is
normally needed. Figure (a) shows the open loop mode and fig. (b) shows the closed
loop mode.

TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEM

The control system may be classified into two types depending upon whether the
controlled variable i.e., output affects the reference variable i.e., input or not.
The control systems are classified into two types :
1) Open loop control system
2) Closed loop control system

Open Loop Control System

A system in which the control action is totally independent of the output of the system is
called as open loop system.

Reference u(t)
Controller Process Controlled output c(t)
input R(t)

u(t) → actuating
→ Reference input R(t) is applied to the controller which generates the actuating signal
u(t) required to control the process which is to be controlled. Process is giving out the
necessary desired controlled output c(t).

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Advantages of open loop system

1) They are simple in construction and design.

2) They are economical.
3) Easy for maintenance.
4) Not much problems of stability.
5) Convenient to use when output is difficult to measure.

Disadvantages of open loop system

1) Inaccurate and unreliable because accuracy is dependent on accuracy of calibration.

2) Inaccurate results are obtained with parameter variations, internal disturbances.
3) To maintain quality and accuracy recalibration of the controller is necessary from time
to time.

Closed Loop Control System

A system in which the controlling action is some how dependent on the output is called
closed loop control system. Such system uses a feedback.

A part of the output is feedback or connected to the input. i.e., feedback is that property
of the system which permits the output to be compared with the reference input so that
appropriate controlling action can be decided.

Forward path
R(t) E Process to be
Controller C(t)
+ controlled
− & Actuator
B

Feedback
element
Feedback path
R(t) − Reference input
C(t) − Controlled output
B − Feedback signal
E − Error signal.

GATE/EC/CS/SLP/Module_6/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.22
 Basic Control System Components

There are two types of feedbacks.

Positive Feedback (Regenerative feedback) :
When output is connected to input with + sign, then it is called as positive feedback.

R(t) E(t) Process to be

+ Controller C(t)
+ controlled
B(t)

Feedback
element

Negative Feedback (Degenerative feedback):

When output is connected to input with − sign, then it is called negative feedback.

R(t) E(t) Process to be

Controller C(t)
+ controlled
−

B(t)

Feedback
element

Advantages of closed loop system

1) Accuracy is very high as any error arising is corrected.

2) It senses changes in output due to environmental or parametric changes or internal
disturbances.
3) Reduces effect of non−linearity.
4) Increases Bandwidth.

Disadvantage of closed loop system

1) Complicated in design.
2) Maintenance is costlier.
3) System may become unstable.

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Effect of Feedback

When feedback is given the error between system input and output is reduced. However
improvement of error is not only advantage. The effects of feedback are
G
1) Gain is reduced by a factor .
1 ± GH
2) Reduction of parameter variation by a factor 1 ± GH.
3) Improvement in sensitivity.
4) Stability may be affected.
5) Linearity of system improves
6) System Bandwidth increases

Difference between Open and Closed Loop Control System

Open loop Closed loop

Any change in output has no effect

Changes in output, affects the input
1 on the input. i.e., feedback does not 1
which is possible by use of feedback.
exist

2 Output is difficult to measure 2 Output measurement is necessary

3 Feedback element is absent 3 Feedback element is present

4 Error detector is absent 4 Error detector is necessary

5 It is inaccurate and unreliable 5 Highly accurate and reliable

6 Highly sensitive to the disturbance 6 Less sensitive to the disturbances

Highly sensitive to the environmental Less sensitive to the environmental

7 7
changes changes

Complicated to design and hence

8 Simple in construction and cheap 8
costly

System operation degenerates if the System operates better than open loop
9 9 system if the non-linearities present
non-linearities present

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 Basic Control System Components

LIST OF FORMULAE

• The motor torque Tm is given by,

dθ dθ
Tm = ktm E + m where E → control, → speed
dt dt
ΔVo
• % Resolution = × 100
Vi
Δ Vo = Change in output voltage
Vi = Input voltage applied

ΔVmax
• % Linearity = × 100
Vi

• In Potentiometer, the loading error is,

αVi
Error = αVi −
⎡ α (1 − α ) R T ⎤
⎢1 + RL ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ ⎤
⎢ α 2 (1 − α ) ⎥
Error = ⎢ ⎥ Vi
⎢ RL ⎥
⎢ α (1 − α ) + R ⎥
⎣ T ⎦

LMR(LAST MINUTE REVISION)

• The control element manipulates the actuating signal preferably to different power
stage so as to drive or feed to the controlled system.
• Control elements plays a vital role to get the desired output.
• For low speed and high torque applications, hydraulic actuators are used.
• Electric actuators have inherent flexibility in electrical power transmission and have
linear speed torque characteristics which is desired.
• Higher torque/ inertia ratio indicates better dynamic response of the motor.
• In Servomotors the direction of rotation depends upon phase relationship of voltages
V1 and V2 of the main winding and the control winding.
• In the AC servomotors, if symmetrical components are used, then the starting torque
is proportional to E, (rms value of the sinusoidal voltage).
• The time constants of the field−controlled dc motor is large than that of armature
controlled because of high inductance of field winding.

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Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

• An example of electromagnetic transducer that converts angular position of a shaft

into electric signal is a synchros. It is also known as selsyn or autosyn.
• Advantages of open loop system
1) They are simple in construction and design.
2) They are economical.
3) Easy for maintenance.
4) Not much problems of stability.
5) Convenient to use when output is difficult to measure.
• Disadvantages of open loop system
1) Inaccurate and unreliable because accuracy is dependent on accuracy of
calibration.
2) Inaccurate results are obtained with parameter variations, internal disturbances.
3) To maintain quality and accuracy recalibration of the controller is necessary from
time to time.

• Advantages of closed loop system

1) Accuracy is very high as any error arising is corrected.
2) It senses changes in output due to environmental or parametric changes or
internal disturbances.
3) Reduces effect of non−linearity.
4) Bandwidth increases.
• Disadvantage of closed loop system
1) Complicated in design.
2) Maintenance is costlier.
3) System may become unstable.



GATE/EC/CS/SLP/Module_6/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.26
 Basic Control System Components

ASSIGNMENT − 1

Duration : 45 mins Marks : 30

Q 1 to Q 6 carry one mark each

1.
Ei

2k E0

10k

The setting ratio of the above potentiometer is 0.3. The value of excitation Ei
required to obtain an output voltage of unity is
(A) 2.5 V (B) 3.5 V
(C) 4.5 V (D) 5.7 V
2. The sensitively of a tachometer is 0.005 V/rpm. The gain constant of tachometer
in units of V/rad/sec is
(A) 0.5 (B) 0.47
(C) 0.047 (D) 0.05

3. Statement 1 : Closed loop systems has a disadvantage that they can become
unstable
Statement 2 : Closed loop systems are less sensitive to environmental
changes than open loop systems
Statements 1 and 2 are respectively.
(A) True, True (B) True, False
(C) False, True (D) False, False

4. An excitation of 3V is applied to a precision potentiometer. For a resolution of

0.5%, the change in the output voltage is
(A) 0.15 V (B) 3.5 V
(C) 1.5 V (D) None of these

5. The potentiometer has 1250 number of turns. The percent resolution provided by
the potentiometer is
(A) 0.04 (B) 0.08
(C) 0.125 (D) 12.5

6. The output voltage of a tachometer is 6.3 V. If the tachometer has a gain of 0.05
V/rad/s, the shaft speed is
(A) 55.7 rad/sec (B) 63 rad/ sec
(C) 126 rad/sec (D) None of these

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Q7 to Q18 carry two marks each

7. _____ is defined as the maximum deviation of actual curve from theoretical curve

(A) Precision (B) Linearity

(C) Resolution (D) Loading error

8.

1
2 3 4
N = 150 60 50 140

If θ1 = 3 rad clockwise for the above gear train, then the displacement of gear 3 is
(A) 3 rad clockwise (B) 9 rad clockwise
(C) 3 rad counter clockwise (D) 9 rad counter clockwise

9. For a precision potentiometer, if the output voltage changes by 0.025 V for an

applied input voltage of 5V, the percent resolution is
(A) 0.05 (B) 0.5
(C) 0.2 (D) None of these

10. Statement 1 : Tachogenerator converts speed into voltage

Statement 2 : Tachogenerator has voltage as its output
Statements 1 and 2 are respectively
(A) True, True (B) False, True
(C) True, False (D) False, False

11. A helical 5 turn potentiometer has a resistance of 10 KΩ and 10,000 winding

turns. What is its linearity, if the measured resistance at its mid−point setting is
5020Ω and at its quarter−point setting is 2590 Ω?
(A) 0.5, 1 (B) 0.2, 0.9
(C) 1, 0.5 (D) 0.9, 0.2

12. A 3− turn 100 kΩ potentiometer with 1% linearity uses a 25V supply. The range
of voltages at mid−point setting will be,
(A) 25.25V, 24.55V (B) 13.65V, 13.15V
(C) 20V, 19V (D) 12.75V, 12.25V

13. A tachometer has a sensitivity of 5V/1000 rpm. The shaft speed in degrees/sec.
when the output voltage is 2.5V will be,
(A) 2062.65°/sec. (B) 1092°/sec
(C) 2984.15°/sec (D) 1567.79°/sec.

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 Basic Control System Components

14. An ac servomotor has both windings excited with 150V ac. It has torque of 2 cb
ft and coefficient of viscous friction is 0.5 cb ft sec. It is connected to a constant
load of 0.8 cb ft and the coefficient of viscous friction of 0.072 cb fts through a
gear pass with a ratio of 6. The speed at which the motor will run is,
(A) 0.97rad/sec. (B) 0.4 rad/sec
(C) 1.79 rad/sec (D) 1.1 rad/sec.
15. Consider the following statements
S1 : The effect of disturbances occurring on the stages of the forward path of
a negative feedback system become more pronounced at the output end
with the increase of the gain of the forward path.
S2: For any feedback control system, it is preferred to have very large gain
for the forward path so as to have higher accuracy of control with
stability.
Choose the correct option using the codes given below :−
(A) True, True (B) True, False
(C) False, True (D) False, False

16.
List I (Control System) List II (Functions)
1. Servo motor (a) Error detector
2. Amplidyne (b) Transducer
3. Potentiometer (c) Actuator
4. Flapper valve (d) Power Amplifier

Choose the correct option using the codes given below.

(A) 1− c, 2 − a, 3 − b, 4 − d (B) 1 − b, 2 − d, 3 − a, 4 − c
(C) 1 − d, 2 − c, 3 − b, 4 − a (D) 1 −c, 2 − d, 3 − a, 4 − b

17. A servo mechanism is designed to keep a radar antenna pointed at a flying

aeroplane. If the aeroplane is flying with a velocity of 750 km/hr at a range of 5
km and the maximum tracking error is to be within 0.2° . The required velocity
error coefficient will be,
(A) 1/2.4 (B) 1/1.6
(C) 1/1.2 (D) 1/2.9

18. A separately excited dc motor is used to drive a load developing a load torque.
The armature of this motor is fed from a dc generator running at constant speed.
The transfer function of the motor is,
1 Km
(A) (B)
s ( Tf s + 1) ( Tm s + 1) s ( Tf s + 1) ( Tm s + 1)
KT
(C) (D) None of the above
s ( Tf s + 1) (s + 1)


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TEST PAPER − 1

Duration : 30 mins Marks : 25

Q 1 to Q 5 carry one mark each

1. _______________ is the ratio of minimum change in output voltage to the total

voltage applied to a potentiometer.
(A) Precision (B) Resolution
(C) Linearity (D) Loading error

2. Actuators are used in low speed and high torque applications as _____
(A) Electric (B) Hydraulic
(C) Electromechanical (D) Pneumatic

3. In brushless dc motors if the primary dc voltage increases then the motor speed
should ______
(A) increase (B) decrease
(C) remain same (D) cannot be determined

4. A position control system is ____

(A) Automatic regulating system (B) Process control system
(C) Servomechanism (D) None of the above

5. For a gear train if N1 and N2 are the number of teeth on the surface of 2 gears
and r1 and r2 are the radii of the 2 gears, then
(A) r2 N 2 = r1N1 (B) r1N 2 = r2 N1
(C) r1r2 = N1N 2 (D) None of these

Q6 to Q13 carry two marks each

6. The output voltage E0 of the above circuit is

+3V

2K E0
5K

Setting ratio for the above circuit is 0.5.

(A) 1.5 V (B) 1.36V
(C) 1.24V (D) 1.73V

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 Basic Control System Components

7. For a servomotor which of the following statements is true?

(A) It has high rotor inertia and high bearing friction
(B) It has high rotor inertia but low bearing friction .
(C) It has low rotor inertia but high bearing friction
(D) It has low rotor inertia and bearing friction.

8. A closed loop system employs a tachogenerator in the forward path. The unit of
constant of proportionality of the feedback component is
(A) volt / radian (B) radian / volt
(C) volt (D) radian

9. A tachometer has a gain 0.07 V/rad/s. The output voltage that can be obtained at
a shaft speed of 30 rad/sec is
(A) 30.07 V (B) 1.05 V
(C) 2.1V (D) 428.5 V

10. The percent resolution of a potentiometer is 0.09. The potentiometer has

________ number of turns.
(A) 220 (B) 571
(C) 1111 (D) 1504

Consider the following for Q11 and Q12

θ2

5 θ1
10

N1
N2
11. If N1 and N2 are teeths of the two gears shown above and if N2 = 100. Then N1 is
(A) 50 (B) 500
(C) 5000 (D) 250

12. If θ1 = 3 rad clockwise, θ2 is

(A) 2/3 rad (B) 3/2 rad
(C) 50/3 rad (D) 3/50 rad

13. Which of the following are the characteristics of a hydraulic actuator?

1. Sluggish
2. Having linear range
3. Handling large power
Choose the correct option using codes given below,
(A) 1, 2 and 3 (B) 2 and 3
(C) 1 and 3 (D) Only 3

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Q14(a) & 14(b) carry two marks each

Linked Answer Question

+10V
14(a). What will be the loading error for the
potentiometer shown in figure below, if
the setting ratio is 0.62?
(A) 0.96 10kΩ
15kΩ
(B) 0.4
(C) 0.018
(D) 0.08

14(b). If the potentiometer of part (a) is a multi−turn unit having a shaft rotation of
1280°, what is the positional error associated withy the loading?
(A) 107.52° (B) 350°
(C) 19.44° (D) 99.27°



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