MODULE 2: THE MANAGEMENT FUNCTION

1. Theories and Functions of Management

A. Evolution of Management Theories and Their Contributions

(i) Classical and Scientific Theories

These early theories focused on efficiency, structure, and hierarchy within organisations.

F.W. Taylor – Scientific Management

●​ Key Principles:​

○​ Scientific job analysis: Use scientific methods to determine the most efficient way
to perform tasks.​

○​ Selection and training: Workers should be selected scientifically and trained

properly.​

○​ Cooperation, not conflict: Management and labour should cooperate.​

○​ Division of work: Managers plan and workers execute.​

●​ Contribution to Modern Organisations:​

○​ Standardisation of tasks and performance metrics.​

○​ Use of time-and-motion studies.​

○​ Foundation of modern operations and production management.​

Henri Fayol – Administrative Theory

●​ Key Principles:​
 ○​ Proposed 14 principles of management (e.g. division of work, authority,
discipline, unity of command).​

○​ Emphasised planning, organising, commanding, coordinating, and controlling

(POCCC).​

●​ Contribution to Modern Organisations:​

○​ Basis for managerial roles and organisational structure.​

○​ Clear chain of command and unity of direction still used today.​

Max Weber – Bureaucratic Management

●​ Key Principles:​

○​ Formal rules and procedures.​

○​ Hierarchical structure.​

○​ Impersonality in decision-making.​

○​ Employment based on technical qualifications.​

●​ Contribution to Modern Organisations:​

○​ Foundation for structured public and private sector organisations.​

○​ Emphasis on job descriptions, procedures, and accountability.​

(ii) Human Relations Model

Elton Mayo – Hawthorne Studies

●​ Key Findings:​

○​ Productivity increased not due to physical changes but because workers felt
valued.​

○​ Social factors and attention from managers improve performance.​

●​ Contributions:​

○​ Recognition of employee motivation, morale, and teamwork.​

○​ Emphasis on leadership, communication, and group dynamics in the workplace.​

○​ Birth of Human Resource Management (HRM).​

(iii) Systems Approach to Management

●​ Views the organisation as a system of interrelated parts working toward a common

goal.​

Concept Explanation

Open System Interacts with its environment (e.g., receives inputs, delivers outputs).

Closed System Does not interact with the external environment (rare in practice).

Synergy Combined output is greater than the sum of individual efforts.

Entropy Tendency toward disorder or breakdown unless actively managed.

 ●​ ​
Contribution to Modern Organisations:​

○​ Emphasises holistic thinking.​

○​ Useful in change management and organisational development.​

○​ Encourages coordination among departments.​

B. Functions of Management

Defined as core activities that managers must perform to ensure effective operations.

(i) Planning

●​ Definition: Setting objectives and determining the best course of action to achieve them.​

●​ Application:​

○​ Strategic planning (long-term)​

○​ Tactical planning (medium-term)​

○​ Operational planning (day-to-day)​

●​ Importance: Provides direction, reduces uncertainty, sets performance standards.​

(ii) Organising

●​ Definition: Arranging tasks, people, and resources to implement plans.​

●​ Application:​

○​ Creating departments.​

○​ Allocating resources and assigning responsibilities.​

 ●​ Importance: Ensures efficiency and clarity in roles and authority.​

(iii) Staffing

●​ Definition: Recruiting, selecting, training, and developing the workforce.​

●​ Application:​

○​ HR planning, job analysis, performance appraisals.​

●​ Importance: Right people in the right roles increase productivity and morale.​

(iv) Leading

●​ Definition: Influencing and motivating employees to work toward organisational goals.​

●​ Application:​

○​ Delegation, communication, conflict resolution.​

○​ Leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire).​

●​ Importance: Drives commitment and inspires high performance.​

(v) Controlling

●​ Definition: Monitoring performance and taking corrective action as needed.​

●​ Application:​

○​ Setting standards, measuring performance, and correcting deviations.​

●​ Importance: Ensures objectives are met and resources are used efficiently.​

Summary Table: Management Functions

 Function Key Role Example

Planning Set goals and strategies Annual budget and marketing plan

Organising Structure resources Department creation

Staffing Hire and train staff Job interviews, onboarding

Leading Motivate and direct Team meetings, feedback

Controlling Monitor and adjust Sales reports, KPIs

2. Organisational Structure

A. Classification of Organisational Structure

Organisational structure defines how activities such as task allocation, coordination, and
supervision are directed toward achieving organisational goals. Each type has distinct principles,
advantages, and disadvantages.

(i) Functional Structure

Principle: Organised according to business functions (e.g. marketing, finance, HR, production).

●​ Advantages:​

○​ Specialisation improves efficiency.​

○​ Clear career paths within departments.​

○​ Functional expertise is developed.​

●​ Disadvantages:​

○​ Communication barriers between departments (silos).​

○​ Lack of overall product/customer focus.​

○​ Decisions may take longer due to bureaucracy.​

(ii) Product-Based Structure

Principle: Organised around specific products or product lines.

●​ Advantages:​

○​ Greater focus on individual product lines.​

○​ Faster decision-making within product units.​

○​ Encourages innovation and accountability.​

●​ Disadvantages:​

○​ Duplication of functions (e.g., multiple HR or finance teams).​

○​ Product divisions may compete for resources.​

○​ Coordination across product lines may be difficult.​

(iii) Geographical/Regional Structure

Principle: Organised according to regions or territories (e.g. Caribbean, North America,

Europe).

●​ Advantages:​

○​ Tailors operations to regional markets.​

○​ Quick response to local conditions.​

○​ Promotes regional accountability.​

 ●​ Disadvantages:​

○​ Duplication of roles across regions.​

○​ Loss of control from head office.​

○​ Inconsistencies in company policies and standards.​

(iv) Matrix Structure

Principle: Combines two dimensions, usually functional and product or project. Employees
report to two managers (e.g. a functional and a project manager).

●​ Advantages:​

○​ Encourages efficient information sharing.​

○​ Utilises resources flexibly.​

○​ Fosters collaboration across departments.​

●​ Disadvantages:​

○​ Dual authority can cause confusion and conflict.​

○​ Complex to manage and maintain.​

○​ Time-consuming coordination.​
(v) Team-Based Structure

Principle: Employees are grouped into cross-functional teams focused on processes, products, or
projects.

●​ Advantages:​

○​ Enhances communication and collaboration.​

○​ Increases flexibility and innovation.​

○​ Builds commitment and morale.​

●​ Disadvantages:​

○​ Role ambiguity may arise.​

○​ Requires strong interpersonal and leadership skills.​

○​ Potential for groupthink.​

(vi) Network Structure

Principle: Core organisation outsources major business functions to separate companies or units.

●​ Advantages:​

○​ Highly flexible and cost-effective.​

○​ Focuses on core competencies.​

○​ Access to expertise not available internally.

●​ Disadvantages:​

○​ Loss of control over outsourced functions.​

○​ Dependency on external parties.​

○​ Risk of confidentiality breaches.​

(vii) Virtual Structure

Principle: Uses technology to coordinate activities across time and space without a centralised
physical presence.

●​ Advantages:​

○​ Minimal physical infrastructure costs.​

○​ Attracts global talent.​

○​ Fast and responsive to changes.​

●​ Disadvantages:​

○​ Lack of physical presence can reduce team cohesion.​

○​ Reliant on IT infrastructure.​

○​ Harder to build organisational culture.​

B. Features of the Formal Organisational Structure

A formal organisational structure is one that is deliberately planned and officially

sanctioned. It outlines clear roles, responsibilities, and lines of authority.

(i) Hierarchy

●​ Definition: The arrangement of individuals in different levels of authority.​

●​ Importance: Establishes order, authority, and clarity of roles.​

(ii) Chain of Command

●​ Definition: The line of authority from top management to the lowest level.​

●​ Importance: Ensures orders and communication flow through defined channels.​

(iii) Span of Control

●​ Definition: The number of subordinates a manager directly supervises.​

●​ Types:​

○​ Wide span: More subordinates per manager (flat structure).​

○​ Narrow span: Fewer subordinates per manager (tall structure).​

●​ Implication: Affects communication, supervision, and cost efficiency.​

(iv) Line and Staff Relationship

●​ Line Role: Direct responsibility for achieving organisational goals.​

●​ Staff Role: Provide advice and support to line departments.​

●​ Importance: Balances operational execution with expert support.​

(v) Responsibility

●​ Definition: The duty to complete assigned tasks.​

●​ Application: Managers and employees are accountable for fulfilling job duties.​

(vi) Authority

●​ Definition: The legitimate power to make decisions and issue commands.​

●​ Importance: Ensures control, order, and compliance within the organisation.​

(vii) Accountability

●​ Definition: Being answerable for outcomes of assigned tasks.​

●​ Importance: Promotes transparency and responsibility.​

(viii) Delegation

●​ Definition: Assigning authority and responsibility to another person to carry out specific
tasks.​

●​ Benefits:​

○​ Develops subordinates.​

○​ Frees up manager's time for strategic tasks.​

○​ Encourages employee engagement.​

(ix) Centralisation

●​ Definition: Decision-making authority is concentrated at the top levels of management.​

●​ Advantages:​

○​ Uniformity in decision-making.​

○​ Easier implementation of policies.​

●​ Disadvantages:​

○​ Slower response to local issues.​

○​ Reduces initiative among lower-level staff.​

(x) Decentralisation

●​ Definition: Decision-making authority is distributed to lower levels.​

●​ Advantages:​

○​ Faster decisions at local levels.​

○​ Encourages flexibility and innovation.​

●​ Disadvantages:​

○​ Potential inconsistency in decisions.​

○​ May reduce overall control from the centre.​

3. Theory and Application of Motivation

A. Factors That Stimulate and Influence Motivation

Motivation is the internal and external factors that stimulate individuals to take actions that lead
to achieving a goal. The following are key influences:

1.​ Individual Needs – Vary from person to person and may include needs for achievement,
security, recognition, etc.​

2.​ Self-Motivation – The drive originating from within the individual; involves setting
personal goals and taking initiative.​

3.​ Ability to Make Choices – Individuals are more motivated when they have autonomy
and freedom to choose how to complete tasks.​

4.​ Environmental Opportunities – Availability of resources, opportunities for growth, and

a supportive environment enhance motivation.​

B. Theories of Motivation

(i) Content Theories – Focus on what motivates individuals.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Theory: People are motivated by five levels of needs arranged in a hierarchy:

1.​ Physiological – Basic survival needs (food, water, shelter).​

2.​ Safety – Job security, safe working conditions.​

3.​ Social – Relationships, teamwork, belonging.​

4.​ Esteem – Recognition, status, responsibility.​

 5.​ Self-actualisation – Personal growth, creativity, achievement.​

Application:

●​ Managers should ensure lower-level needs are met before expecting high performance.​

●​ Job enrichment and career development satisfy higher-level needs.​

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (Hygiene-Motivation Theory)

Theory: Two types of factors influence motivation:

●​ Hygiene Factors (e.g., pay, company policies, supervision) prevent dissatisfaction but do
not motivate.​

●​ Motivators (e.g., recognition, responsibility, achievement) promote satisfaction and

motivation.​

Application:

●​ Improve hygiene factors to reduce dissatisfaction.​

●​ Use motivators for sustained employee performance.​

(ii) Process Theory – Focuses on how motivation occurs.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

Theory: Motivation is based on the belief that:

●​ Effort will lead to Performance (Expectancy).​

●​ Performance will lead to Rewards (Instrumentality).​

●​ Rewards will satisfy personal goals (Valence).​

Application:

●​ Managers must clarify expectations, provide necessary support, and ensure rewards are
meaningful and desirable to employees.​

C. Implications for Managers

1.​ Understand individual motivations and tailor incentives accordingly.​

2.​ Use appropriate reward systems:​

○​ Financial: bonuses, salary increases, profit sharing.​

○​ Non-Financial: recognition, flexible hours, promotion.​

3.​ Foster a motivational climate through feedback, growth opportunities, and participative
decision-making.​

4.​ Avoid one-size-fits-all strategies – different individuals are motivated differently.​

4. Leadership

A. Definition of Leadership

Leadership is the ability to influence, inspire, and direct people to achieve organisational goals.
It differs from management in its focus on vision, change, and people rather than structure and
control.
B. Leadership Theories

Trait Theory

Core Idea: Leaders are born, not made; leadership is based on inherent traits (e.g., confidence,
intelligence, integrity).

Criticism: Overlooks learned behaviours and environmental influences.

Situational Leadership (Hersey and Blanchard)

Core Idea: No single leadership style is best. The best style depends on:

●​ The task​

●​ The maturity/competence of followers​

●​ The context​

Styles range from:

●​ Telling (directive) to​

●​ Selling (explanatory) to​

●​ Participating (supportive) to​

●​ Delegating (hands-off)​

Value-Based Leadership (Richard Barrett)

Core Idea: Leadership is grounded in deeply held values like honesty, integrity, and social
responsibility.

Application: Builds trust and aligns organisational behaviour with ethical values.
Ethical Leadership (Kasthuri Henry)

Core Idea: Emphasises fairness, justice, and integrity. Leaders act ethically and foster ethical
cultures in organisations.

Benefits:

●​ Encourages trust and transparency.​

●​ Minimises unethical practices and reputational risk.​

C. Leadership Skills

1.​ Communication – Clear, persuasive, two-way interaction.​

2.​ Strategic Thinking – Long-term planning, vision, and opportunity identification.​

3.​ Emotional Intelligence – Awareness and control of one’s emotions, empathy,

relationship management.​

4.​ Decision-Making, Problem-Solving, and Critical Thinking – Rational analysis,

creativity, and sound judgement.​
D. Leadership Styles/Behaviours

Transactional Leadership

●​ Based on exchanges: reward for performance, discipline for non-performance.​

●​ Focuses on goals, structure, and performance.​

●​ Suitable for routine, structured environments.​

Transformational Leadership

●​ Inspires and motivates through vision, enthusiasm, and charisma.​

●​ Encourages innovation, change, and personal development.​

●​ Ideal for dynamic, change-oriented settings.​

E. Informal Leadership

Definition:

Leadership exercised by individuals without formal authority but with influence over peers (e.g.,
experienced workers, respected team members).

Advantages:

●​ Encourages peer motivation.​

●​ Bridges gaps between management and staff.​

●​ Promotes informal mentorship and knowledge sharing.​

Disadvantages:

●​ May undermine formal authority.​

●​ Influence can be negative if not aligned with organisational goals.​

●​ May create cliques or informal power struggles.​

5. Effective Management of Teams

A. Definition of Teams

A team is a group of individuals who come together to achieve a common goal or complete a
specific task. Unlike a group, teams are characterised by:

●​ Interdependence,​

●​ Shared accountability, and​

●​ Collective outcomes.​

🔹 In organisations, teams are essential for problem-solving, innovation, project

implementation, and overall productivity.

B. Tuckman’s Stages of Team Development

Developed by Bruce Tuckman (1965), this model outlines the five stages that teams typically
progress through:

1.​ Forming​

○​ Team is created, roles are unclear.​

○​ Members are polite, cautious, and dependent on the leader.​

○​ High reliance on the leader for guidance.​

2.​ Storming​

○​ Conflicts arise as personalities clash and team members challenge authority or

ideas.​

○​ Power struggles and competition may occur.​

 ○​ Crucial stage for establishing rules and trust.​

3.​ Norming​

○​ Team begins to settle and cooperate.​

○​ Roles and responsibilities become clearer.​

○​ Increased communication and stronger cohesion.​

4.​ Performing​

○​ Team operates efficiently towards goals.​

○​ High trust, collaboration, and independence.​

○​ Minimal supervision needed.​

5.​ Adjourning (also known as Mourning)​

○​ Team disbands after achieving its objectives.​

○​ May involve celebration or reflection.​

○​ Members may experience a sense of loss.​

🔹 Understanding this model helps managers support their teams appropriately at

each stage.
C. Characteristics of Effective Teams

Effective teams share the following core traits:

1.​ Commitment​

○​ Shared dedication to the team’s mission and tasks.​

2.​ Participation​

○​ Active involvement from all members.​

3.​ Trust​

○​ Mutual confidence in each other’s reliability and integrity.​

4.​ Decision by Consensus​

○​ Decisions are agreed upon by all or most members, not imposed by one.​

5.​ Flexibility​

○​ Willingness to adapt roles and strategies as needed.​

6.​ Encouragement​

○​ Members support and motivate one another.​

7.​ Support and Growth​

○​ The environment promotes individual development and team progress.​

D. Forces That Influence Team Cohesiveness

Team cohesiveness refers to how well members stick together and work collaboratively. Key
influencing factors:
 1.​ Size​

○​ Smaller teams tend to be more cohesive due to better communication and stronger
relationships.​

2.​ Team Goals​

○​ Clear, shared objectives increase unity and purpose.​

3.​ Similarities​

○​ Common values, interests, or backgrounds can enhance bonding.​

4.​ Diversity​

○​ When managed well, diversity leads to innovation and wider perspectives; when
unmanaged, it can cause conflict.​

5.​ Attraction​

○​ Positive relationships and mutual respect among members increase cohesion.​

⚠️ Managers must manage these forces carefully to build effective and inclusive
teams.

E. Advantages and Disadvantages of Teams to the Organisation

✅ Advantages
●​ Improved Creativity and Innovation – Multiple perspectives improve problem-solving.​

●​ Higher Productivity – Division of labour leads to efficiency.​

●​ Increased Motivation – Team support can boost morale.​

●​ Shared Responsibility – Reduces individual pressure and risk.​

●​ Better Decision-Making – Collaboration leads to well-rounded decisions.​

❌ Disadvantages
●​ Conflict – Personality clashes or poor communication.​

●​ Groupthink – Pressure to conform can suppress new ideas.​

●​ Time-Consuming – Consensus-based decisions may delay action.​

●​ Unequal Participation – Risk of social loafing (some doing less work).​

●​ Coordination Difficulties – Especially in large or cross-functional teams.​

6. Managing Conflict in Organisations

A. Definition and Nature of Conflict

Conflict refers to a disagreement or clash between individuals, groups, or departments within

an organisation due to differing interests, values, goals, or perceptions.

🔹 It is a natural part of organisational life and can be either constructive

(functional conflict) or destructive (dysfunctional conflict).

🔹 Types of Organisational Conflict:

1.​ Interpersonal Conflict – between two or more individuals.​

2.​ Intragroup Conflict – within a team or group.​

3.​ Intergroup Conflict – between departments or units.​

4.​ Organisational Conflict – between employees and the organisation's policies or

leadership.​

🔹 Nature of Conflict:
●​ Inevitable in dynamic environments.​

●​ Can be overt (visible) or covert (hidden tension).​

●​ May arise from real or perceived incompatibilities.​

●​ Can hinder or enhance performance, depending on how it's managed.​

B. Possible Causes of Conflict

1.​ Management Style​

○​ Autocratic vs democratic leadership may lead to discontent.​

 ○​ Lack of employee participation in decision-making.​

2.​ Competition for Scarce Resources​

○​ Limited access to budgets, manpower, materials, or time.​

○​ Departments competing for the same resources may develop rivalry.​

3.​ Ineffective Communication​

○​ Misunderstandings, unclear instructions, or withheld information.​

○​ Poor communication channels increase frustration and tension.​

4.​ Clash of Personalities​

○​ Differences in work habits, values, or emotional temperaments.​

○​ Personal biases, egos, or behavioural conflicts among staff.​

⚠️ These causes can be interrelated and may escalate if left unresolved.

C. Strategies to Manage Conflict

Effective conflict management requires selecting appropriate strategies based on the nature,
intensity, and parties involved in the conflict.

Strategy Description Best Used When...

1. Avoidance Ignoring or withdrawing from the Issue is trivial or emotions are too
conflict; hope it resolves itself. high.

2. Smoothing Emphasising areas of agreement rather To maintain harmony temporarily

than differences. or where relationships matter.

3. Compromise Each party gives up something to A quick solution is needed; both

reach a mutually acceptable solution. sides have equal power.

4. Parties work together to find a Complex issues with important

Collaboration win-win solution that fully satisfies long-term consequences.
both.

5. Directly addressing the issue to Critical issues requiring immediate

Confrontation resolve it constructively. resolution and clarity.

🧠 A manager’s role is to assess the situation and apply the most suitable strategy
or a combination thereof.
7. Management of Change

A. Nature of Change in Organisations

Organisational change refers to the process by which companies alter key components of their
operations to improve efficiency, adapt to external pressures, or achieve strategic objectives.

🔹 Types of Change:
1.​ Technical Change​

○​ Introduction of new technologies or automation.​

○​ Example: switching from manual to digital systems.​

2.​ Economic Change​

○​ Impact of inflation, recession, changing trade agreements.​

○​ May influence costs, investment, and market behaviour.​

3.​ Demographic Change​

○​ Shifts in population size, age, education, or cultural composition.​

○​ Requires adapting products, services, and employment policies.​

4.​ Social Change​

○​ Changing social values, lifestyles, or expectations.​

○​ Examples: demand for remote work or ethical sourcing.​

5.​ Legal Change​

○​ New regulations or compliance requirements.​

 ○​ Includes labour laws, environmental laws, taxation, etc.​

🧠 Organisations must be agile and responsive to these types of change in order to

remain relevant and competitive.

B. Reasons for Resistance to Change

Resistance is a natural human and organisational reaction to any change that disrupts existing
patterns.

Reason Explanation

Fear of the Unknown Employees may be anxious due to uncertainty about

outcomes or their roles.

Climate of Mistrust Lack of trust in management intentions or past experiences

with failed changes.

Disrupted Habits People are comfortable with routines; change disrupts

established behaviours.

Loss of Control and Individuals may feel powerless or less capable in the face of
Confidence change.

Inadequate Training Lack of proper training leads to fear of underperformance or

job loss.

Redistribution of Some staff may feel overburdened while others feel

Workload underutilised.
 Lack of Clarity of Purpose Unclear goals or lack of communication about why change is
necessary.

Loss of Power or Status Restructuring can result in loss of authority or influence.

Ineffective Communication Poor dissemination of information causes misunderstandings

and uncertainty.

Inadequate Leadership If leadership is not committed, change efforts lack credibility

Support and direction.

⚠️ Resistance is not always negative — it can reveal weaknesses in the change plan
that need addressing.

C. Importance of Coping with and Managing Change

Effectively managing change ensures the organisation remains sustainable and competitive in
a dynamic environment.

✔️ Why Change Must Be Managed:

●​ To ensure employee buy-in and cooperation.​

●​ To reduce uncertainty, resistance, and workplace conflict.​

●​ To align the workforce with new strategies, systems, or goals.​

●​ To maximise performance and productivity during transition.​

●​ To protect the brand, maintain customer loyalty, and meet legal compliance.​

●​ To cultivate a culture of adaptability and continuous improvement.​

 🌍 In today’s global economy, change is constant — adaptability is a key factor in
organisational survival and success.

D. Strategies to Manage Change

Lewin’s Change Management Model – Force Field Analysis

Kurt Lewin proposed a 3-step model for managing change effectively:

🔹 1. Unfreezing
●​ Prepare the organisation to accept that change is necessary.​

●​ Breakdown the existing status quo.​

●​ Key activities: open communication, identify reasons for change, reduce resistance.​

🔹 2. Changing (Transition)
●​ Implement the change after readiness is established.​

●​ New behaviours, processes, or systems are introduced.​

●​ Requires support systems: training, communication, resources, role modelling.​

🔹 3. Refreezing
●​ Reinforce and stabilise the new state after the change.​

●​ Ensure changes are sustained in organisational culture.​

●​ Strategies: reward systems, continuous feedback, embedding change in policies.​

🔧 Force Field Analysis

This tool identifies and evaluates driving forces (supporting change) and restraining forces
(resisting change).

Driving Forces (Promote Change) Restraining Forces (Oppose Change)

Technological innovation Fear of the unknown

Competitive pressure Employee resistance

Government regulation Lack of training

Consumer expectations Loss of job security

🔄 The goal is to strengthen driving forces and reduce or eliminate restraining

forces.
8. Communication in Organisations

A. Definition of Communication

Communication is the process of transmitting information, ideas, feelings, or messages from

one person or group to another to achieve understanding.

B. Communication Process (Diagrammatic Overview)

The communication process involves several key elements:

1.​ Sender – initiates the message.​

2.​ Encoding – converting the idea into a message (words, symbols, gestures).​

3.​ Message – the information being sent.​

4.​ Medium/Channel – the method used to send the message.​

5.​ Receiver – the person or group who receives the message.​

6.​ Decoding – interpreting and understanding the message.​

7.​ Feedback – response from the receiver back to the sender.​

8.​ Context – the environment or situation in which communication occurs.​

Effective communication requires clear encoding, appropriate channels, and

confirmation through feedback.

C. Communication Methods

●​ Oral Communication: spoken words, face-to-face, telephone conversations, meetings.​

●​ Written Communication: letters, reports, memos, emails, manuals.​

 ●​ Visual Communication: charts, graphs, logos, symbols, videos.​

●​ Non-Verbal Communication: body language, facial expressions, gestures, tone of voice.​

D. Communication Channels

●​ Internet: websites, social media, cloud platforms.​

●​ E-mail: formal and informal electronic mail communication.​

●​ Intranet: internal company network for sharing information.​

●​ Facsimile (Fax): sending documents via telephone lines.​

●​ Video Conferencing: real-time audio-visual communication across locations.​

E. Definition of Effective Communication

Effective communication occurs when the intended message is received accurately and clearly
by the recipient and understood as intended, enabling informed decisions and actions.

F. Lines of Communication

1.​ Formal Channels:​

○​ Vertical Communication​

■​ Upward: from subordinates to managers (feedback, reports).​

■​ Downward: from managers to subordinates (instructions, policies).​

 ○​ Horizontal Communication​

■​ Between colleagues or departments at the same organisational level

(coordination, problem-solving).​

2.​ Informal Channels:​

○​ Social or unofficial communication networks (e.g., "grapevine").​

○​ Can spread information quickly but may also cause rumours.

G. Advantages and Disadvantages of Communication Channels

Channel Advantages Disadvantages
Type

Formal Clear, documented, official, Slow, rigid, can inhibit free

accountability expression

Informal Fast, fosters social bonds, flexible Unreliable, can spread

misinformation

H. Importance of Effective Communication

●​ Ensures clarity of goals and objectives.​

●​ Facilitates coordination and collaboration.​

●​ Builds trust and morale among employees.​

●​ Enhances decision-making through accurate information.​

●​ Reduces conflict and misunderstandings.​

●​ Improves customer relationships and organisational reputation.​

●​ Enables adaptation to change and innovation.​

I. Barriers to Effective Communication

1.​ Sender Stage Barriers​

○​ Poor message encoding.​

○​ Lack of clarity or precision.​

○​ Emotional interference or bias.​

2.​ Transmission Stage Barriers​

○​ Inappropriate or faulty communication channel.​

○​ Technical problems (noise, poor signal).​

○​ Environmental distractions.​

3.​ Receiver Stage Barriers​

○​ Poor listening skills.​

○​ Misinterpretation or lack of attention.​

○​ Emotional state or prejudice.​

J. Reducing Barriers to Communication

1.​ Sender Stage​

○​ Use clear and simple language.​

○​ Understand audience needs.​

○​ Avoid jargon and ambiguous terms.​

2.​ Transmission Stage​

○​ Choose the most suitable channel.​

○​ Minimise technical faults and distractions.​

○​ Use feedback to confirm message receipt.​

3.​ Receiver Stage​

○​ Encourage active listening.​

○​ Ask clarifying questions.​

○​ Foster an open and trusting environment.​

9. Human Resource Management (HRM)

A. Strategic Role of Human Resource Management (HRM)

●​ HRM is fundamental to organisational success because it manages the most valuable

asset: people.​

●​ It aligns the workforce capabilities and behaviours with the organisation’s strategic
goals.​

●​ HRM contributes to:​

○​ Improving employee productivity and motivation.​

○​ Ensuring the organisation has the right people with the right skills at the right
time.​

○​ Fostering a positive work culture.​

○​ Enhancing competitive advantage by developing talent and innovation.​

○​ Managing change effectively through people.​

●​ HRM helps organisations adapt to dynamic markets, technologies, and legal

requirements.​

●​ It supports long-term planning through workforce forecasting and development.​

B. Key Functions of the Human Resources Department and Their Strategic
Importance

1. Recruitment and Selection

●​ Definition: Process of attracting, screening, and choosing qualified candidates for job
positions.​

●​ Description:​

○​ Recruitment involves advertising jobs, sourcing candidates.​

○​ Selection includes interviewing, testing, background checks.​

●​ Strategic Importance:​

○​ Ensures hiring of individuals who fit organisational culture and possess skills for
business objectives.​

○​ Reduces turnover and associated costs.​

○​ Enhances organisational performance by selecting high-potential employees.​

2. Training and Development

●​ Training: Teaching employees specific skills or knowledge needed to perform their

current jobs.​

○​ Types of Training:​

■​ Induction: Introduction for new employees to company culture, policies,

and their role.​

■​ Orientation: Similar to induction but may include more detailed

job-specific information.​

■​ On-the-Job Training: Practical training conducted at the workplace.​

■​ Off-the-Job Training: Training outside the workplace such as workshops

or courses.

●​ Development: Preparing employees for future roles and responsibilities.​

○​ Coaching: One-on-one guidance to improve skills or performance.​

○​ Counselling: Helping employees address personal or work-related problems.​

○​ Mentoring: Experienced employees advise and support less experienced staff.​

●​ Strategic Importance:​

○​ Improves employee skills and productivity.​

○​ Enhances job satisfaction and motivation.​

○​ Prepares employees for future organisational needs and succession planning.​

○​ Supports innovation and adaptability.​

3. Performance Management Cycle

●​ Definition: A continuous process to improve individual and organisational performance.​

●​ Components:​

○​ Goal-setting: Establishing clear, measurable objectives aligned with

organisational strategy.​

○​ Resource Allocation: Ensuring employees have necessary tools, information, and

support.​

○​ Timelines: Setting deadlines for achieving goals.​

○​ Ongoing Monitoring: Regular check-ins and feedback during the performance

period.​

○​ Appraisal: Formal evaluation of employee performance at the end of the cycle.​

●​ Strategic Importance:​

○​ Aligns individual objectives with business strategy.​

○​ Identifies training and development needs.​

○​ Motivates employees through recognition and constructive feedback.​

○​ Supports decisions related to promotions, rewards, or disciplinary actions.​

○​ Drives continuous improvement and accountability.​