Subject:WMN

Class & Code IF6IA/B-22622

UNIT2
GPRS and Mobile Data communication (12M)

History Of GPRS:
GPRS was one of the main advances that empowered a cell system to
interface with Internet Protocol systems, accomplishing across the board
reception in the mid-2000s.
The capacity to peruse the web from a telephone whenever through
“dependably on” data networking, while underestimated in a great part of
the world today, was as yet an oddity when it was introduced. Indeed, even
now, GPRS keeps on being utilized in parts of the world where it has been
too expensive even to consider upgrading cell organize framework to move
up to newer alternatives.
According to a study on the history of GPRS development Bernhard Walke
and his student, Peter Decker, are the inventors of GPRS – the first system
providing universal mobile Internet access.

GPRS stands for General Packet Radio Service .

General Packet Radio System is also known as GPRS is a third-
generation step toward internet access
 It is the modified version of GSM architecture.
 GPRS is a packet-oriented mobile data mechanism, that can carry data
packets as well.
 In GSM architecture, only voice signals can be transported, so being an
enhanced version GPRS is able to transmit voice as well as data
packets.
 It uses the same physical radio channel as GSM does, the only
difference is it has a new logic defined for the radio channel.
 GPRS architecture works on the same procedure like GSM network,
but, has additional entities that allow packet data transmission.
 This data network overlaps a second-generation GSM network
providing packet data transport at the rates from 9.6 to 171 kbps.
 Along with the packet data transport the GSM network accommodates
multiple users to share the same air interface resources concurrently

Function of GPRS
• A mobile generation called GPRS is used to talk information via mobile
networks.
• It allows clients to access the internet and different data services on
their cell gadgets.
• Due to its low prices and environmental friendliness, GPRS is a famous
option for consumers.
 Features of GPRS

• GPRS is a wireless communication service that allows data to be

transmitted over a cellular network.
• GPRS uses packet-switching technology to transmit data, which means
that data is divided into small packets and sent over the network in a
more efficient way.
• GPRS offers always-on connectivity, which means that a user can stay
connected to the network at all times, without having to establish a
connection every time they want to send or receive data.
• GPRS provides faster data transfer rates compared to the earlier
generation of cellular networks, such as GSM.
• GPRS enables new applications and services to be developed, such as
mobile internet browsing and email.
• GPRS is a precursor to modern cellular data technologies, such as 3G
and 4G.

• Advantages of GPRS
• A high-speed data transfer cost is offered to mobile devices through
General Packet Radio Service or GPRS.
• Web browsing, email sending and receiving, and online shopping are
just a few of the online services that GPRS users can access while they
are on the move.
• Because GPRS is always operational, customers can access the
internet quickly and without any problems without utilizing dial-up.
• GPRS offers a cost-effective approach to transmitting statistics
because it only charges for the volume of data transferred, not for the
amount of time spent online.
• GPRS offers users a flexible option because it functions well with a
variety of mobile devices.
• GPRS tries to make maximum use of the existing physical structure of
GSM. It has introduced a new entity named GPRS support nodes(GSN)
whose responsibility is to route and deliver a data packet. GSN is of
two types:
• Serving GPRS Support Node (SGNS)
• Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGNS)

GPRS architecture

• Mobile Station(MS)
 • GPRC requires enhanced mobile stations, as existing mobile stations
were designed according to the GSM network, and they were unable in
handling enhanced data packets.
• A variety of high-speed mobile stations are available to support
enhanced data packets.
• These mobile stations are also capable of handling the GSM
architecture to make voice calls.
• Base Station Subsystem (BSC)
• In GSM architecture there is one component called BSC. But in GPRS
there is one component is added to BSC called PCU. PCU stands for
Packet Control Unit.
• If the signal comes to BSC and that signal contains data, then PCU
routes to the SGSN.
• The interface is used between BSC and PCU is the FRI interface.
• After the signal comes to SGSN, it delivers the data packet to the
GGSN. GGSN routes the data packet to the data network (PDN-
Predefined Data Network).
• GPRS Support Nodes
• GPRS support nodes are of two types:
• 1. Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
It is responsible for the following tasks:
• Packet Delivery
• Mobility management
• apply/ sign off of terminals
• localization
• LLC (Logical Link Control) management
• Authentication
• billing
• 2. Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
It is responsible for the following tasks:
• Mediator between GPRS backbone and external data networks.
Saves current data for the SGSN address of the participant as well as their
profile and data for authentication and invoice

• Internal Backbone Network

• It is an IP-based network that is used to support the working of GPRS
and this is responsible to carry new packets between different GSNs.
• The tunneling is used between SGNSs and GGSNs to exchange
information without informing the internal backbone.

• Mobility Support
• GPRS has the following mechanism to support mobility in the network:
1. Attachment Procedure
2. Location and Handoff Management

• Routing Area
• GPRS introduces the concept of a Routing Area.
 • This concept is similar to Location Area in GSM, except that it
generally contains fewer cells. Because routing areas are smaller than
location areas, less radio resources are used While broadcasting a
page message.

• SMS in GSM
• GSM introduced a mechanism of Short Messaging Service(SMS) which
is similar to peer-to-peer Instant messaging.

• Therefore, GPRS requires modifications to numerous GSM network

elements as summarized below:

GSM Network Modification or Upgrade Required for GPRS.

Element
Mobile New Mobile Station is required to access GPRS
Station services. These new terminals will be backward
(MS) compatible with GSM for voice calls.
BTS A software upgrade is required in the existing
Base Transceiver Station(BTS).
BSC The Base Station Controller (BSC) requires a
software upgrade and the installation of new
hardware called the packet control unit (PCU).
The PCU directs the data traffic to the GPRS
network and can be a separate hardware
element associated with the BSC.
GPRS The deployment of GPRS requires the
Support installation of new core network elements
Nodes called the serving GPRS support node (SGSN)
(GSNs) and gateway GPRS support node (GGSN).
Databases All the databases involved in the network will
(HLR, VLR, require software upgrades to handle the new
etc.) call models and functions introduced by GPRS.
 GPRS Services
Services Offered:
1. SMS messaging and broadcasting
2. Push-to-talk over cellular
3. Instant messaging and presence
4. Multimedia messaging service(MMS)
5. Point-to-Point and Point-to-Multipoint services

GPRS - Quality of Service

Based on different GPRS applications there are different GPRS QoS services. Applications can be real-time
multimedia,Web browsing and e-mail

GPRS allows defining QoS profiles using the following parameters :

 Service Precedence
 Reliability
 Delay and
 Throughput

GPRS Network Nodes

Following two new components, called Gateway GPRS Support Nodes
(GSNs) and, Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) are added:

Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)

The Gateway GPRS Support Node acts as an interface and a router to

external networks.
It contains routing information for GPRS mobiles, which is used to tunnel
packets through the IP based internal backbone to the correct Serving
GPRS Support Node.

The GGSN also collects charging information connected to the use of the
external data networks and can act as a packet filter for incoming traffic.

Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)

The Serving GPRS Support Node is responsible for authentication of GPRS

mobiles, registration of mobiles in the network, mobility management, and
collecting information on charging for the use of the air interface.

 Routing IN GPRS

• Data routing or routing of data packets to and fro from a

mobile user, is one of the pivot requisites in the GPRS network.
The requirement can be divided into two areas:
• Data packet routing
• Mobility management.
• Data Packet Routing
• The important roles of GGSN involve synergy with the external
data network.
• The GGSN updates the location directory using routing
information supplied by the SGSN about the location of an MS.
• It routes the external data network protocol packet
encapsulated over the GPRS backbone to the SGSN currently
serving the MS.
• It also decapsulates and forwards external data network
packets to the appropriate data network and collects charging
data that is forwarded to a charging gateway (CG).

• There are three important routing schemes:

• Mobile-originated message - This path begins at
the GPRS mobile device and ends at the host.
 • Network-initiated message when the MS is in
its home network - This path begins at the host
and ends at the GPRS mobile device.
• Network-initiated message when the MS
roams to another GPRS network - This path
begins at the host of visited network and ends at
the GPRS mobile device.
• The gprs network encapsulates all data network
protocols into its own encapsulation protocol called
the gprs tunnelling protocol (gtp).
• The GTP ensures security in the backbone network
and simplifies the routing mechanism and the
delivery of data over the GPRS network
• The GPRS network encapsulates all data network protocols into its
own encapsulation protocol called the GPRS tunnelling protocol
(GTP). The GTP ensures security in the backbone network and
simplifies the routing mechanism and the delivery of data over the
GPRS network.

• Mobility Management
In GPRS, three mobile station (MS) mobility management
states,
i.e., idle, ready, and standby are defined in order to
accommodate
bursty traffic characteristics of data services, and thus, GPRS
results
in efficient management of radio resources and signaling
networks.
 Logical CHANNELS IN GPRS

GPRS Channels

Let us go through GPRS logical channels. Logical channels are named and used in
GPRS network are PBCCH, PPCH, PAGCH,PNCH,PRACH, PACCH,PTCCH,PDTCH.
These channels are divided as mentioned below based on their functions.

Broadcast channel-
Packet Broadcast Central Channel (PBCCH)
Common control channels- Packet Paging Channel (PPCH)
Packet Access Grant Channel (PAGCH)
Packet Notification Channel (PNCH)
Packet Random Access Channel (PRACH)
Dedicated control channels-Packet Associated Control Channel (PACCH)
Packet Timing Advance Common Control Channel (PTCCH)
Dedicated traffic channel-Packet Data Traffic Channel (PDTCH)
GPRS Logical Channel functions are described below.
PDTCH- Used for data traffic, bidirection between MS(Mobile Subscriber) and
BSS(base station subsystem)
PBCCH- Used for Broadcast signalling control, from BSS to MSs
PRACH- Used for random access, from MSs to BSS
PAGCH- Used for Access Grant indication, from BSS to MSs
PPCH-Used for Paging, from BSS to MSs
PNCH- USed for notification purpose, from BSS to MSs
PACCH- Used for Associated control, bidirectional
PTCCH- Used for timing advance control, bidirectional

Wireless LANs(WLAN)
WLAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. WLAN is a wireless network that
allows devices to associate and communicate wirelessly.
Just like a traditional wired LAN in which the device transmits over Ethernet cables, the
devices using the WLAN transmit through WiFi.

Mobile users can connect to a WLAN through wireless connection. The IEEE 802.11
group of standards describe the technologies for LANs.

Though WLAN looks dissimilar to the traditional LAN, it works in the same way

 First, new devices are configured with the help of DHCP.

 Then, they can connect with other devices on the network in the same manner
they would work on a wired network.
 The main difference is how the data is passed on. In LAN, data is transferred
through physical cables in a series of Ethernet packets. However, in WLAN,
packets are transferred across the air.
 Wireless routers provide wireless connection to the devices whose WiFi are ON
and in the range of the router’s signal. Devices can be laptops, tablets,
smartphones, and other wireless devices.
 Also, wireless routers frequently connect to the cable modem or the devices to
connect to the Internet easily.

Advantages of WLANs
• They provide clutter free homes, offices and other networked
places.
• The LANs are scalable in nature, i.e. devices may be added or
removed from the network at a greater ease than wired LANs.
• The system is portable within the network coverage and access to
the network is not bounded by the length of the cables.
• Installation and setup is much easier than wired counterparts.

• The equipment and setup costs are reduced.

Disadvantages of WLANs
• Since radio waves are used for communications, the signals are
noisier with more interference from nearby systems.
• Greater care is needed for encrypting information. Also, they are
more prone to errors. So, they require greater bandwidth than the
wired LANs.
• WLANs are slower than wired LANs.

WLAN APPLICATIONS
• Wireless LANs have a great deal of applications.
• Modern implementations of WLANs range from small in-home
networks to large, campus-sized ones to completely mobile
networks on airplanes and trains.
 • Users can access the Internet from WLAN hotspots in restaurants,
hotels, and now with portable devices that connect to 3G or 4G
networks

(WLAN)IEEE 802.11 Architecture

The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows

1) Stations (STA) − Stations comprise all devices and equipments that are connected
to the wireless LAN. A station can be of two types:

 Wireless Access Pointz (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP) are
generally wireless routers that form the base stations or access.
 Client. − Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers, smartphones,
etc.
Each station has a wireless network interface controller.

2) Basic Service Set (BSS) −A basic service set is a group of stations communicating
at physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories depending upon mode of
operation:

 Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with other devices

through access points.
 Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in peer-to-peer basis in an
ad hoc manner.

3) Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.

4) Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.

RFID(Radio Frequency Identification)

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is the application of radio waves to read and
capture information stored on tags affixed to objects.

RFID readers are installed at tracking points and can read information from tags when
they come into range, which can be of several feet radius.

A tag need not be within direct line-of-sight of the reader to be tracked. RFID is used to
check identities and track inventory, assets and people.

RFID tags can be attached to a variety of objects like cash, clothing, baggage, parcels,
and even implanted in animals and people.

Working Principle

There are two parts in a RFID system−

  a tag or label
 a reader

RFID tags are affixed on the object and have a transmitter and a receiver embedded on
it. It contains the serial number that uniquely identifies a specific object. The tags have
two parts−

 a microchip to store and process information, and

 an antenna to receive and transmit a signal.

The RFID reader (also called interrogator) captures the information encoded on the tag
using an antenna.

It is a two-way radio transmitter-receiver that emits a signal for the tag. The tag
responds by sending the information embedded in its memory. The reader captures the
results and transmits to the RFID computer program, which then performs the
necessary processing.

Types of RFID tags

RFID tags are categorized into three types according to power−

 Passive tags− They use the radio wave energy of the reader to transmit its ID
to the reader.
 Active tags− They are equipped with an on-board battery and transmit their ID
periodically.
 Battery – assisted Passive− They have a small battery on-board and are
activated only within the range of an RFID reader.

According to readability, RFID tags are as follows−

 Read-only tags− They have a factory-assigned ID which serves as a key into a

database.
 Read/write tags− In these tags, object-specific data can be written and
retrieved by the system user.
 Field programmable tags− These are written once by the system, thereby
they can be read multiple times.
 Blank tags− They may be electronically written by the user.
Types of RFID readers

RFID readers are categorized into two types according to power−p>

 Passive readers− They can only receive signals from active tags.
  Active readers− They can transmits interrogator signals to both passive, active
as well as battery-assisted tags and also receives replies from them.

According to position, RFID readers are of two types−

 Fixed readers− They are used to create a highly defined and tightly controlled
interrogation area. Tags are read when they enter this area. Active readers are
deployed here.
 Mobile readers− They are used for creating handheld tag reading devices. They
may be also installed in moving vehicles.

RFID-fEATURES
• A unique ID
• Automatic recognition
• Can detect ‘hidden’ objects
• Multiple tags can be read at once
• Rugged and weatherproof
• security
RFID-Advantages
• Low maintenance cost
• Can handle large amount of data
• It provides secure and reliable data
• Detection process is automatic

RFID-Disadvantages

• it is costly because active rfid is battery dependent

• It is susceptible to virus
• It is effected by metal and liquid products.

RFID-Application
• Security & Control Applications
 • Toll Road Applicatiosns
• Baggage Applications
• Assets tracking
• Animal tracking
• Automotive

Bluetooth
 Bluetooth is universal for short-range wireless voice and data
communication.
 It is a Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) technology and is used
for exchanging data over smaller distances.
 This technology was invented by Ericson in 1994. It operates in the
unlicensed, industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band from 2.4 GHz
to 2.485 GHz.
 Maximum devices that can be connected at the same time are 7.
 Bluetooth ranges up to 10 meters.
 It provides data rates up to 1 Mbps or 3 Mbps depending upon the
version.
 The spreading technique that it uses is FHSS (Frequency-hopping
spread spectrum).
 A Bluetooth network is called a piconet and a collection of
interconnected piconets is called scatternet.

What is Bluetooth?

Bluetooth simply follows the principle of transmitting and receiving data

using radio waves.It can be paired with the other device which has also
Bluetooth but it should be within the estimated communication range to
connect. When two devices start to share data, they form a network called
piconet which can further accommodate more than five devices.
Points to remember for Bluetooth:
 Bluetooth Transmission capacity 720 kbps.
 Bluetooth is Wireless.
 Bluetooth is a Low-cost short-distance radio communications
standard.
 Bluetooth is robust and flexible.
 Bluetooth is cable replacement technology that can be used to
connect almost any device to any other device.
 The basic architecture unit of Bluetooth is a piconet.
Bluetooth Architecture:

The architecture of Bluetooth defines two types of networks:

1. Piconet
2. Scatternet

Piconet:

Piconet is a type of Bluetooth network that contains one primary

node called the master node and seven active secondary nodes called
slave nodes. Thus, we can say that there is a total of 8 active nodes which
are present at a distance of 10 meters. The communication between the
primary and secondary nodes can be one-to-one or one-to-many. Possible
communication is only between the master and slave; Slave-slave
communication is not possible. It also has 255 parked nodes, these are
secondary nodes and cannot take participation in communication unless it
gets converted to the active state.

Scatternet:

It is formed by using various piconets. A slave that is present in one

piconet can act as master or we can say primary in another piconet. This
kind of node can receive a message from a master in one piconet and
deliver the message to its slave in the other piconet where it is acting as a
master. This type of node is referred to as a bridge node. A station cannot
be mastered in two piconets.
Bluetooth protocol stack:

1. Radio (RF) layer: It specifies the details of the air interface,

including frequency, the use of frequency hopping and transmit
power. It performs modulation/demodulation of the data into RF
signals. It defines the physical characteristics of Bluetooth
transceivers. It defines two types of physical links: connection-less
and connection-oriented.
2. Baseband Link layer: The baseband is the digital engine of a
Bluetooth system and is equivalent to the MAC sublayer in LANs. It
performs the connection establishment within a piconet, addressing,
packet format, timing and power control.
3. Link Manager protocol layer: It performs the management of the
already established links which includes authentication and
encryption processes. It is responsible for creating the links,
monitoring their health, and terminating them gracefully upon
command or failure.
4. Logical Link Control and Adaption (L2CAP) Protocol layer: It
is also known as the heart of the Bluetooth protocol stack. It allows
the communication between upper and lower layers of the Bluetooth
protocol stack. It packages the data packets received from upper
layers into the form expected by lower layers. It also performs
segmentation and multiplexing.
5. Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) layer: It is short for Service
Discovery Protocol. It allows discovering the services available on
another Bluetooth-enabled device.
6. RF comm layer: It is a cabal replacement protocol. It is short for
Radio Frontend Component. It provides a serial interface with WAP
and OBEX. It also provides emulation of serial ports over the logical
link control and adaption protocol(L2CAP). The protocol is based on
the ETSI standard TS 07.10.
7. OBEX: It is short for Object Exchange. It is a communication
protocol to exchange objects between 2 devices.
 8. WAP: It is short for Wireless Access Protocol. It is used for internet
access.
9. TCS: It is short for Telephony Control Protocol. It provides telephony
service. The basic function of this layer is call control (setup &
release) and group management for the gateway serving multiple
devices.
10. Application layer: It enables the user to interact with the
application.

Types of Bluetooth

Various types of Bluetooth are available in the market nowadays. Let us look
at them.
 In-Car Headset: One can make calls from the car speaker system
without the use of mobile phones.
 Stereo Headset: To listen to music in car or in music players at
home.
 Webcam: One can link the camera with the help of Bluetooth with
their laptop or phone.
 Bluetooth-equipped Printer: The printer can be used when
connected via Bluetooth with mobile phone or laptop.
 Bluetooth Global Positioning System (GPS): To use GPS in cars, one
can connect their phone with car system via Bluetooth to fetch the
directions of the address.

Advantage:

 It is a low-cost and easy-to-use device.

 It can also penetrate through walls.
 It creates an Ad-hoc connection immediately without any wires.
 It is used for voice and data transfer.

Disadvantages:

 It can be hacked and hence, less secure.

 It has a slow data transfer rate: of 3 Mbps.
 It has a small range: 10 meters.
 Bluetooth communication does not support routing.
 The issues of handoffs have not been addressed.

Applications:

 It can be used in laptops, and in wireless PCs, printers.

 It can be used in wireless headsets, wireless PANs, and LANs.
 It can connect a digital camera wirelessly to a mobile phone.
  It can transfer data in terms of videos, songs, photographs, or files
from one cell phone to another cell phone or computer.
 It is used in the sectors of Medical health care, sports and fitness,
Military.

WiMax in Computer Network

WiMax stands for Worldwide Inter-operability for Microwave Access.
This technology is based on IEEE 802.16.
It is used to provide higher data rates with increased coverage.
It is based on MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) technology.
Its range is upto 50 Km. It may provide speed upto 70 Mbps and it can
operate in Non-Line-of-Sight.
This technology is fast, convenient and cost effective

Architecture:

1. Physical Layer: This layer specifies frequency band,

synchronization between transmitter and receiver data rate and
multiplexing scheme.
This layer is responsible for encoding and decoding of signals and
manages bit transmission and reception. It converts MAC layer
frames into signals to be transmitted. Modulation schemes which
are used on this layer includes: QPSK, QAM-16 and QAM-64.

2. MAC Layer:
This layer provides and interface between convergence layer and
physical layer of WiMax protocol stack. It provides point to
multipoint communication and is based on CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance). The MAC layer is
 responsible for transmitting data in frames and controlling access to
shared wireless medium. The MAC protocol defines how and when a
subscriber may initiate a transmission on the channel.

3. Convergence Layer:
This layer provides the information of the external network. It
accepts higher layer protocol data unit (PDU) and converts it to
lower layer PDU. It provides functions depending upon the service
being used.

Advantages of WiMAX:

1. Wide Coverage Area: WiMAX can cover an area of up to 50

kilometers, making it suitable for providing broadband access in
rural and underserved areas.
2. High Data Rates: WiMAX can provide data rates of up to 75 Mbps,
which is higher than many other wireless technologies.
3. Scalability: WiMAX can be easily scaled to support a large number
of users and devices.
4. Interoperability: WiMAX is based on an international standard,
which allows for interoperability between different vendors’
equipment.
5. Cost-effective: WiMAX is a cost-effective solution for providing
broadband access in areas where it is not economically feasible to
deploy wired infrastructure.

Disadvantages of WiMAX:

1. Limited Mobility: WiMAX is designed for fixed or nomadic (semi-

fixed) use, not for mobile use.
2. Interference: WiMAX operates in the same frequency range as
other wireless technologies, which can lead to interference.
3. Security Concerns: WiMAX uses a shared spectrum, which can
make it vulnerable to security threats such as eavesdropping and
jamming.
4. Limited device availability: WiMAX devices are not as widely
available as devices for other wireless technologies, such as WiFi.
5. Limited penetration: WiMAX signals may have trouble penetrating
through walls, buildings and other obstacles.
Applications:
WiMAX technology is used in a variety of real-life applications, including:
Broadband Internet Access: WiMAX is used to provide high-speed
internet access in rural and underserved areas where traditional wired
broadband is not available.
Wireless Backhaul: WiMAX is used to provide a wireless link between a
cellular base station and the core network, eliminating the need for a wired
connection.
Mobile Broadband: WiMAX is used to provide mobile broadband services,
allowing users to access high-speed internet on the go.
Public Safety: WiMAX is used to provide wireless connectivity for public
safety networks, allowing emergency responders to communicate and share
information in real-time.
Smart Grid: WiMAX is used to provide wireless connectivity for smart grid
systems, allowing utilities to remotely monitor and control the power grid.
Telemedicine: WiMAX is used to provide wireless connectivity for
telemedicine systems, allowing healthcare professionals to remotely
diagnose and treat patients.
VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) : WiMAX is also used to provide a
wireless link for Voice over IP (VoIP) phone services, allowing users to make
phone calls over the internet.
Video Surveillance: WiMAX is used to provide wireless connectivity for
video surveillance systems, allowing security personnel to monitor and
record video footage remotely

Mobile Internet Protocol (or Mobile IP)

Mobile IP is a communication protocol (created by extending Internet
Protocol, IP) that allows the users to move from one network to another with
the same IP address. It ensures that the communication will continue
without the user’s sessions or connections being dropped.
Terminologies:
1. Mobile Node (MN) is the hand-held communication device that the
user carries e.g. Cell phone.
2. Home Network is a network to which the mobile node originally
belongs as per its assigned IP address (home address).
3. Home Agent (HA) is a router in-home network to which the mobile
node was originally connected
4. Home Address is the permanent IP address assigned to the mobile
node (within its home network).
5. Foreign Network is the current network to which the mobile node
is visiting (away from its home network).
6. Foreign Agent (FA) is a router in a foreign network to which the
mobile node is currently connected. The packets from the home
agent are sent to the foreign agent which delivers them to the
mobile node.
7. Correspondent Node (CN) is a device on the internet
communicating to the mobile node.
8. Care-of Address (COA) is the temporary address used by a mobile
node while it is moving away from its home network.
9. Foreign agent COA, the COA could be located at the FA, i.e., the
COA is an IP address of the FA. The FA is the tunnel end-point and
 forwards packets to the MN. Many MN using the FA can share this
COA as a common COA.
10. Co-located COA, the COA is co-located if the MN temporarily
acquired an additional IP address which acts as COA. This address is
now topologically correct, and the tunnel endpoint is at the MN. Co-
located addresses can be acquired using services such as DHCP.

Working:
The correspondent node sends the data to the mobile node. Data packets
contain the correspondent node’s address (Source) and home address
(Destination). Packets reach the home agent. But now mobile node is not in
the home network, it has moved into the foreign network. The foreign agent
sends the care-of-address to the home agent to which all the packets should
be sent. Now, a tunnel will be established between the home agent and the
foreign agent by the process of tunneling.
Tunneling establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a
tunnel entry and an endpoint. It is the process of sending a packet via a
tunnel and it is achieved by a mechanism called encapsulation.
Now, the home agent encapsulates the data packets into new packets in
which the source address is the home address and destination is the care-
of-address and sends it through the tunnel to the foreign agent. Foreign
agent, on another side of the tunnel, receives the data packets,
decapsulates them, and sends them to the mobile node. The mobile node in
response to the data packets received sends a reply in response to the
foreign agent. The foreign agent directly sends the reply to the
correspondent node.