WATER INSTITUTE (WI)

DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL STUDIES

NOTES FOR GST05204: CALCULUS

2024/2025

Definition: Calculus is the mathematical study of changes. It involves

A. Differential Calculus which study rate of changes
B. Integral Calculus which study accumulation of quantities.

A. Differential Calculus
1. Derivative of functions
1.1 Definition of Derivative
Derivative of functions can be defined as instantaneous rate of change of a function at a
specific point. Mathematically, the derivative of f (x) with respect to x is the function f (x) which
is defined as,

f ( x +h )−f (x )
f x=lim
h →0 h
Examples: By using derivative definition find derivative of
2
i. f ( x )=x −2
ii. f ( x )= √ x
iii. f ( x )=3 x 2 +12 x −8
x
iv. f ( x )=
x +2
v. sin x
vi. cos x
vii. tan x
viii. xsin x
2
ix. x cos x
x. xtan2 x

1.2 Derivative notations

1
 dy
a) Leibniz's notation whereby y=f (x )
dx
b) Lagrange's notation f ' ( x )∨ y '
c) Newton's notation ẏ

1.3 Properties of derivative

1. If f ( x )=x n then f ' =n x n−1

If f (x) and g(x ) are two continuous functions. Then

d d d
2. ( f (x) ± g ( x) ) = f (x )± g( x )
dx dx dx
d df dg
3. Product rule: ( fg ) =g +f
dx dx dx
df dg
g (x) −f
4. Quotient rule: d f
dx g
= () dx
g
2
dx

1.4 Derivatives of trig functions

We can use the definition of derivative to find derivative of the trigonometric functions. We will
sin h cos h−1
use some facts of trigonometric like lim sin h=0 , lim cos h=1 lim =1 and lim =0
h→ 0 h→ 0 h→ 0 h h→ 0 h

Examples:

1. Find the derivative of sin x , cos x , tan x , cot x , sec x and cosec x .
df f ( x +h ) −f (x )
From =lim but f (x)=sin x
dx h → 0 h
d sin ( x +h ) −sin x
sin x=lim
dx h→ 0 h
sin x cos h+cos x sin h−sin x
¿ lim
h→ 0 h
sin x (cos h−1)+cos x sin h
¿ lim
h→ 0 h
cos h−1 sin h
¿ lim sin x + lim cos x
h→ 0 h h →0 h

¿ sin x ( 0 ) +cos x (1 )

2
¿ cos x

2. We can use the same procedure to show that

d
cos x=−sin x
dx

sin x
3. For tan x it is known that tan x= , which follows that
cos x
d
dx
tan x=
d sin x
dx cos x ( )
d d
cos x sin x−sin x cos x
dx dx ( by using the quotient rule)
¿ 2
cos x

cos x cos x−sin x (−sin x)

cos 2 x

2 2
cos x+ sin x
¿ 2 but cos 2 x +sin2 x=1
cos x

d 1 2
Therefore tan x= =sec x
dx 2
cos x

We can use the derivative function and other mathematical facts to obtain the derivatives for
the other trig functions.

Summary of trig derivatives

d d
a) sin nx=ncos nx eg. sin 3 x=3 cos 3 x
dx dx
d d
b) cos nx =−nsin x eg cos √ 7 x=−√ 7 sin √ 7 x
dx dx
2
d 2 d 1 1 1
c) tan nx=nsec nx eg. tan x= sec x
dx dx 3 3 3
d d
d) secnx =n sec nx tan nx eg. sec2 x=2 sec 2 x tan2 x
dx dx
d 2 d 2
e) cot nx=−ncsc nx eg. cot 4 x=−4 csc 4 x
dx dx
d d
f) csc nx=−ncsc nx cot nx eg. csc 5 x=−5 csc 5 x cot 5 x
dx dx

3
1.5 Derivative of inverse trigonometric functions
' 1
Note that, two functions f (x) and g(x ) are inverses if g (x)= ' or g ( f ( x ) )=x and
f (g ( x ) )
f ( g ( x ) )=x . Let us apply these facts to obtain the derivatives of inverse sine, cosine and
tangent.

Let y=sin−1 x , i.e sin y=x

Let us check for the inverse function

sin ( sin−1 x )=x and sin ( sinx )=x , so their inverse to each other.
−1

Let f ( x )=sinx and g ( x )=sin−1 x

' 1
From g (x)= ' we have
f (g ( x ) )

' 1
g (x)= −1
cos (sin x )

1
¿
cos( y)

From cos 2 y +sin 2 y=1 , it follows cos y=¿ √ 1−sin2 y ¿

' 1
g (x)= but sin y=x
√1−sin2 y
d 1
Therefore g ( x ) = dx ( sin x )=
' −1

√1−x 2
We can employ the same and other known facts to show that

i.
d
( cos−1 x ) = −1 2
dx √1−x
d
ii. ( tan−1 x ) = 1 2
dx 1+ x

iii.
d
( cot−1 x )= −1 2
dx 1+ x
d 1
iv. ( sec−1 x ) =
dx | x|√ x 2−1

4
 v.
d
( csc −1 x )= −12
dx |x|√ x −1
Example:

Differentiate the following function

−1 −1
f ( x )=7 sin x + tan 3 x

Solution

df d −1 −1
= (7 sin x + tan 3 x )
dx dx

d
¿ ( 7 sin−1 x ) + d ( tan−1 3 x)
dx dx

7 1
¿ +
√1−x 2
1+ 9 x
2

1.6 Derivative of exponential functions and logarithms

The exponential functions are functions which are in the form of f ( x )=a x

d x
a) ( a )=a x ln a
dx
d 1
b) ( ln x )= x >0
dx x
d 1
c) ( ln|x|) = x ≠ 0
dx x

d)
d
dx
( log a x ) =
d ln x
dx ln a( )
=
1
x ln a

1.6 Methods of differentiation

So far we have seen some properties of differentiation which can also regarded as methods of
integration (power, product and quotient rules). Due to some complexity of functions those
properties cannot be used alone instead some additional methods are needed to simplify the

5
differentiation process. In this module we learn one more method which is Chain rule of
differentiation.

1.6.1 Chain rule of differentiation

If y is a function of u ¿) and u is a function of x (i .e u=g( x )) then

dy dy du
=
dx du dx

Example: Find derivative of

y= √ x 2−3 x +5

Solution

Let u=x2 −3 x +5 then y= √ u

dy 1 du
= and =2 x−3
du 2 √u dx

dy dy du
From =
dx du dx

dy 2 x−3
Then = but u=x2 −3 x +5
dx 2 √ u

dy 2 x−3
=
dx 2 √ x 2−3 x+5

From above example it can be noticed that, the derivative of the composite function
F (x)=(f o g)(x ) is given by

d ' '
F (x)=f (g ( x ))g ( x)
dx

Example: Find derivative of h ( x )=sin ¿ ¿)

This can be thought to be a composite function whereby g ( x )=x 2−3 x+5 and f ( x )=sin x . This
implies that h ( x )=f ( g ( x ) ) =sin ¿ ¿) therefore

f ( g ( x ) )=cos ¿ ¿)
'
and g' ( x ) =2 x−3

Hence, h' ( x )=(2 x−3) cos ¿ ¿)

6
1.7 Derivative of parametric equations
If x and y are expressed in terms of other variables then the equations are known as parametric
equations. Therefore, If x=f (t)and y=g (t) then the first and second derivatives will be given by

dy
dy dt
=
dx dx
dt

( )
2
d y d dy dt
2
=
dx dt dx dx

t is called parametric variable.

dy
Example 1: Find if x=4 t 3 −2t +1 and 2
y=t +t
dx
Solution
dx 2
3
x=4 t −2t +1 , =12t −2
dt
dy
2
y=t +t , =2 t+1
dt
dy
dy dt dy 2 t+1
= , =
dx dx dx 12 t 2−2
dt

2
dy d y
Example 2: find and 2 for
dx dx

{x=cos t
y =sin t

Solution
dx
x=cos t , =−sin t
dt
dy
y=sint , =cos t
dt

7
 dy
dy dt
=
dx dx
dt
cos t
¿
−sin t
¿−cot t

( )
2
d y d dy dt
2
=
dx dt dx dx

¿ ( )
d dy 1
dt dx dx
dt
d 1
¿ (−cot t )
dt −sin t
2
¿ csc t ¿
3 −1
¿−csc t= 3
sin t

1.8 Implicit differentiation

So far we were dealing with the functions of the form y=f (x ) which is not always the case.
These function are regarded as explicit functions. Suppose we want to find the derivative of y
with respect to x for the function xy=3 . There are two ways we can perform its derivative:

1. Make y the subject if possible

3 ' −3
y= then y = 2
x x
2. Differentiate implicitly. Note that y is a function of x ie y= y (x).
Therefore xy=3 can be written as xy (x )=3. Differentiate both sides with respect to x ,
d d
(xy ( x ) )= (1) the left hand side expression looks like differentiation of the product
dx dx
of two functions.

d d d
y (x) ( x ) + x ( y ( x ) )= (1)
dx dx dx

' −y
y + x y =0 which implies y =
'
x

8
 3
If y is known it can be substituted. For this example ¿ , which follows that
x

' −3
y= 2 . We have obtained the same results.
x

When we are differentiating the function whose independent variable and dependent
variable mixed together it is called implicit differentiation of the function.

1.9 Higher derivatives

By using the same concept and procedure, we can obtain the higher derivatives (second, third,
fourth, …) by differentiating the derivative function. If you differentiate the first derivative you
will obtain the second derivative ( y ' '). If you differentiate the second derivative you will obtain
the third derivative ( y ' ' ' )etc.

Note that, for the nth degree polynomial we can obtainn derivatives. For trig and exponential
function e x , we have infinity derivatives.

Example: Find the first four derivative for the following functions
2

i. f ( t )=5 t 3+ 4 √ t −7 e t
ii. y=3 cos 2 x +sin 7 x
−2 t
iii. f ( t )=sin t +e + ln 7 t

1.10 Application of derivatives

Derivatives has many applications including
1.10.1 Rate of change
The first interpretation of derivative is the rate of change of the dependent variable with
respect to independent variable. If f (x) represents a quantity at any value of x then the
derivative f ' x represents the instantaneous rate of change of f (x)at x . If the rate of change is
positive ( f ' x >0 ¿ then there is an increase change and if the rate of change is negative (
' '
f x <0 ¿ then there is decrease change of the quantity at that specific point. If ( f x=0 ¿ there is
no any change and we call the corresponding point x , critical point and f (x) is the
corresponding critical value. The point (x , f (x )) where f ' x=0 is also called a stationary point.
Example 1: Suppose that the amount of water in a holding tank at t minutes is given by
2
V ( t )=2t −36 t +40 . Determine each of the following.

9
(a) What is the volume of water in the tank at t=0 ?
(b) What is the rate of change of the volume at t=0 ?
(c) Is the volume of water in the tank increasing or decreasing at t 1?
(d) Is the volume of water in the tank increasing or decreasing at t 5 ?
(e) Is the volume of water in the tank changing faster at t 1 minute or t 5 minutes?
(f) Is the volume of water in the tank ever not changing? If so, when?

Example 2: Determine all the stationary points and values for the following function

4 2
A ( t )=t −3 t + 2t +7

Example 3: Identify all critical points and its values for the function

f ( x )=2 x 3−3 x 2−12 x+12 on (-10,15)

B: Integral Calculus

1. Integration
a. Definition and its notation
When we are integrating we are asking ourselves what function have been differentiated to obtain the
current function f (x). Therefore integration is anti-derivative.
Definition: Integration is the inverse of differentiation and it is called anti-derivative. Given a function
, f (x), then anti-derivative of f (x) is any function F (x) such that F ' ( x )=f (x)
Example: Find integration of f ( x )=x 3 +2 x−1, the function which have been differentiated is
4
1 2
F ( x )= x + x −x +c where c is any constant which have been differentiated to 0. We say F (x) is
4
antiderivative of f (x).
If F ( x ) is any anti-derivative of f ( x ) then the most general anti-derivative of f ( x ) is indefinite integral
and denoted as,

∫ f ( x ) dx=F ( x )+ c, c is any constant.

In this definition, ∫ is called integral symbol, f ( x ) is called integrand, x is called variable of integration
and c is called constant of integration.

Example: Evaluate the following integral

10
∫ (12 x 3 + 4 x 2−4) dx
Solution
1 n+1
The derivative of x n is nx n−1, therefore its anti-derivative will be x , therefore
n+1

4
∫ (12 x 3 + 4 x 2−4) dx=3 x 4 + 3 x 3−4 x +c

Summary

f (x) ∫ f ( x ) dx
1 n+1
x
n
x +c
n+1
cos x sin x +c
sin x −cos x +c
sec x tan x sec x +c
sec x
2
tan x +c
cosec x
2
−cot x +c
tan x −ln|cos x|+c
sec x ln |sec x+ tan x|+c
cosec x ln |cosec x−cot x|+ c
x x
e e +c
1
ln x +c
x
1 1
∫ ax +b a
ln (ax +b)+ c

x
a
∫ ax dx ln a
+c

1.2 Properties of integral

11
Let f (x) and g(x ) be two derivative functions and a be any constant, then the following are true

∫ [f ( x ) ± g(x )]dx=∫ f ( x ) dx ±∫ g ( x ) dx
∫ af ( x ) dx=a∫ f ( x ) dx
1.3 Initial value problem.
When we are integrating indefinite integral we obtain the function with unknown constant ( c ). This
constant can be obtained if the value of the function at a certain point is known initially. The process of
defining the value of the function initially is called initial value problem.

Example: Evaluate ∫ (12 x + 4 x −4) dx given, f (1)=3.

3 2

Solution
4 4 3
We have seen this example previous that, ∫ (12 x + 4 x −4) dx=3 x + x −4 x +c
3 2
3
What we did here is that, ∫ f ' ( x ) dx=f (x), therefore we can use the value of f (x) at x=0, to obtain the
value of C . Therefore;
4 4 3
f ( 1 ) =3=3 (1) + (1) −4 (1)+ c
3
1
Evaluating and making c the subject, c= .
3
4 4 3 1
Hence, ∫ (12 x + 4 x −4) dx=3 x + x −4 x + .
3 2
3 3

1.4 Definite Integral

While indefinite integral deals with general integration, in the definite integral, the limits of integration
is provided. Upon evaluating the integral on that limits we obtain the exact value of that integral.
Given a function f (x) that is continuous on the interval [a , b] we can obtain the total area under the
curve by dividing the intervals inton subintervals of equal width, Δ x , find the area of each sub interval
( f (x ¿¿ i) Δ x ¿ and add them together. Then the definite integral of f (x) from a to b is

n b
lim ∑ f (x i) Δ x=∫ f ( x ) dx ,
n → ∞ i=1 a

12
The number “ a ” that is at the bottom of the integral sign is called the lower limit of the integral and the
number “ b ” at the top of the integral sign is called the upper limit of the integral. Also, despite the fact
that a and b were given as an interval the lower limit does not necessarily need to be smaller than the
upper limit. Collectively we’ll often calla andb the interval or limits of integration.

To get out of using the limit function, the integral is evaluated normally but the obtained function is
evaluated at the ends as follows:

∫ f ' ( x ) dx=f ( b )−f ( a)

a

This is a reminder that we are finding antiderivative so we are integrating derivative function. The
definite integral is defined to be exactly the limit of the summation. One of the applications of definite
integral is to find the net area between a function and the x-axis.

3π

Example: Evaluate ∫ sin θ dθ

0

Solution
3π

∫ sin θ dθ=cos θ|0

3π

¿ cos 0−cos 3 π
¿ 1−(−1 )
¿2
This result can be interpreted as, the area under the curve of sin θ between θ=0 and θ=3 π is 2 units.

Properties of definite integral

Let f (x) and g(x ) be two functions, and m to be a constant, then

b b b

1. ∫ [f ( x ) ± g(x )]dx=∫ f ( x ) dx ±∫ g ( x ) dx
a a a

b b

2. ∫ mf ( x ) dx=m∫ f ( x ) dx
a a

b a

3. ∫ f ( x ) dx=−∫ f ( x ) dx
a b

Letc to be any constant between or outside the interval of integration (a ,b) then,

13
 b c b

4. ∫ f ( x ) dx=∫ f ( x ) dx +∫ f ( x ) dx
a a c

5. ∫ f ( x ) dx=0
a

1.5 Integration techniques

Since the integrand can assume any function, so we need different techniques of integration. There are
so many of them but in this module we will learn three methods which are

1. Substitution method
2. Integration by parts
3. Partial fractions
1.5.1 Integration by substitution
This method assumes integration of substituted variable to be simple than the initial one.

Generally it is written as, ∫ f (g ( x )) g ( x ) dx=∫ f (u ) du where u=g (x)

'

Example: Evaluate ∫ ( 15 x 2 √ 5 x 3−10 ) dx

4

Solution
1

√ 5 x 3−10)dx=∫ ( 5 x 3−10 ) 4 (15 x 2 dx ) , since 15 x 2is the derivative of 5 x 3−10, we can let
∫ (15 x 24

3
5 x −10 to be u and make the integral more simple.

Hence, let u=5 x 3−10 , du=15 x 2 dx

Substitute these new variables to the integral, the results is

1 1

∫ ( 5 x −10 ) ( 15 x dx )=∫ (u )
3 4 2 4
du

5
4 4
¿ (u) + c
5

Substituting back u, then

1 5
4
∫ ( 5 x −10 ) ( 15 x dx )= 5 ( 5 x 3−10 ) 4 +c
3 4 2

14
1.5.2 Integration by parts
Integration by parts is used when we have product of two functions f (x) and g(x ) which can be written
as ∫ f ( x ) g ( x ) dx . Let u=f (x ) and dv =g ( x ) dx , ie ∫ f ( x ) g ( x ) dx =∫ udv. From derivative of product
functions, uv we have
d dv du
( uv )=u + v
dx dx dx
Applying integral with respect to x both sides we obtain
d dv du
∫ dx ( uv ) dx=∫ u dx dx +∫ v dx dx
uv=∫ udv +∫ vdu

Since we are looking for ∫ udv then

∫ udv =uv−∫ vdu

This is called integration by parts. This can be applied more than one time depending on nature of the
function. We normally choose u to be the diminishing function when differentiated and the remaining
function to be dv .
2π

Example: Find ∫ x cos 3 x dx

2

π
2

Solution
2
u=x then du=2 xdx
dv =cos 3 x dx then v=−3 sin 3 x
From, ∫ udv =uv−∫ vdu it follows that

2π 2π
2π
∫ x cos 3 x dx=−3 x sin 3 x| −∫ −6 x sin 3 x dx
2 2
π
π 2 π
2 2

2 2π
3π
¿− + 6 ∫ x sin 3 x dx
4 π
2

Since we are not done with integration we will assume another integration by part by
Letting u=x then du=dx
dv =sin 3 x dx then v=3 cos 3 x

15
 [ ]
2π 2 2π

∫ x cos 3 x dx= −34π +6 3 x cos 3 x|π −3∫ cos 3 x dx

2 2π

π 2 π
2 2

[ ]
3π 2π 2π
¿− + 6 3 x cos 3 x|π + 9 cos 3 x|π
4 2 2

2
3π
¿− + 6 ( 6 π + 9)
4

16
2. Questions on Differential Calculus
2.1 Find derivative of the following functions by using first principle of derivative
3 2
i. f ( x )=x −10 x +3 x+ 32
2
ii. f ( x )=6 x −2 x−3
2
iii. f ( x )=x +sin 3 x+ 10
iv. f ( x )=| x|
t +2
v. f ( t )=
t−2
2.2 Differentiate the following functions
i. f ( x )=3 x 12+ 5 x 7 −e 4 x +cos 7 x +14
5 t
ii. f ( t )=7 t cos 2 t−4 e
2
t −2 t+ 3
iii. g ( t )=
2 t−1
2t 3
iv. T ( x )=e −t tan2 t
v. f ( x )=sin √ x 3 +7 x−8
2

vi. g ( t )=e t +t 2 sec2 t

3
x −3 sinx
vii. f ( x )=2 x e
x
viii. f ( x )=4 −5 log 7 t
2t 3 2
ix. f ( x )=3 e +8 x ln t
4
h ( t )=( 2 t + cos 3 t )
3
x.
3 5 3
xi. x y +3 x=8 y =1
2 10
xii. x tan y+ y sec x=2 x
2 x+3 y 2 3
xiii. e =x −ln(x y )
x
xiv. y=x
5
x
xv. y=
(1−10 x) √ x 2 +2
1
2.3 A point moves along the curve y=x 3−3 x +5 so that x= √ t+3 , wheret is time. At
2
what rate is y changing when t=2 , 4∧8.
2.4 A point moves in the plane according to the equations x=t 2+ 2t and
3 dy
y=2t −6 t . Find when t=0 , 3 and 10.
dt
17
2.5 Find equation of the tangent line to f ( x )=4 x−3 √ x at x=12
2.6 Find equations of the tangent and normal lines to y=x 3−2 x 2 +4 at x=3
2.7 The position of an object is given by the equation 2 t 3 −21t 2 +60 t−10. Determine
when the object is moving to the right and when the object is moving to the left.
2.8 Determine all stationary points for f ( x )=x 3 +12 x 2−3 x+6
2.9 Determine the absolute extrema for the following functions and then sketch their
graph
3 2
i. g ( t )=2 t +3 t −12t +4
ii. f ( x )=−x 4
2.10 If f ( x )=x 4+ 2 x 3−3 x 2−4 x+ 4 , find
a) All derivatives of f (x)
b) The relative extremum of f(x)
c) The intervals on which f (x) is increasing or decreasing

18