SECTION II

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
Diffraction of Light –Fraunhoffer diffraction at single slit, Fraunhoffer diffraction at
double slit, Diffraction Grating, Resolving power of a grating, dispersive power of a grating
Application of Diffraction - Determination of wavelength of light with a plane transmission
grating
1 Distinction between interference and diffraction:
Interference
• Interference is the result of interaction of light coming from different wave fronts
originating from the source.
• Interference fringes may or may not be of the same width.
• Regions of minimum intensity are perfectly dark.
• All bright bands are of same intensity
Diffraction
• Diffraction is the result of interaction of light coming from different parts of the same
wave front.
• Diffraction fringes are not of the same width.
• Points of minimum intensity are not perfectly dark.
• All bright bands are not of the same intensity.
2 The two types of diffraction:
The diffraction phenomena are broadly classified into two types: Fresnel diffraction and
Fraunhoffer diffraction
Fresnel diffraction:
In this type of diffraction the source of light and the screen are effectively at finite
distances from the obstacle. Lenses are not used to make the rays parallel or convergent. The
incident wave front is not planar. As a result, the phase of the secondary wavelets is not the same
at all points in the plane of the obstacle. The resultant amplitude at any point of the screen is
obtained by the mutual interference of the secondary wavelets from different elements of
unblocked portion of the wave front. It is experimentally simple but the analysis is very complex.
Fraunhoffer diffraction:
In this type of diffraction, the source and the screen are effectively at infinite distances from the
obstacle. This is achieved by using two convex lenses, one to make the light from the source
parallel and the other to focus the light after diffraction on the screen. The incident wave front as
such is plane and the secondary wavelets, which originate from the unblocked portion of the
wave front, are in the same phase at every point in the plane of the obstacle. The diffraction is
produced by the interference between parallel rays, which are brought to focus with the help of a
convex lens. This problem is simple to analyze mathematically because the rays are parallel.

3 Fraunhoffer diffraction at single slit:

The arrangement to obtain the Fraunhoffer diffraction by a single slit is as shown figure.
Lens L1 renders the beam parallel while second lens L2 focus the parallel diffracted ray on a
screen. Consider a narrow slit AB of width a, illuminated by parallel monochromatic light of
wavelength λ. What we obtain on a screen is a slit image of maximum brightness at center
followed by secondary maxima on the either side. This intensity distribution is known as
Fraunhoffer diffraction pattern.
The path difference ∆ between extreme rays is,
∆ = BC = AB sinθ = a sinθ
Phase difference Ф = (2π/λ) ∆ = (2
(2π/λ) a sinθ
Consider the slit now divided into N parts of equal widths ∆x,
x, then path difference
between waves transmitted
tted by two adjacent parts is δ = ∆x sinθ
⇒ Phase difference = ∆Ф = (2π/λ
π/λ) ∆x sinθ
As there are N slits, there will be N phasor
phasors, of same amplitude ∆E and same phase
difference ∆Ф between adjacent phasor
phasors. These N phasors of equal amplitude and same phase
difference between adjacent phasor forms an arc of a circle AB ass shown in fig. with center at C
and radius R.
Consider
onsider arc AB represents the maximum amplitude Em obtained by adding the phasor,
and length of chord AB represents the amplitude Eθ of diffracted wave at an angle of diffraction
θ at a fixed point on the screen.
From figure AC = BC = R (radius of circle),
α = Ф/2 = (π/λ) a sinθ
Also AD = BD = Eθ/2
In ∆ACD, sin α = AD/AC = (Eθ/2)/R
⇒ R = (Eθ/2 sin α)
Also, AB= R Ф and Em = R 2α
⇒R = Em /2 α
Comparing R we get,
(Eθ/2 sin α) = Em /2 α
⇒ Eθ = Em sin α / α
(Eθ)2 = (Em sin α / α)2
We know intensity is proportional to square of amplitude,
(Iθ) = K (Em sin α/α)2 = Im (sinα/α)2 where Im = K (Em)2
a) Principal Maximum:
We have
Eθ = Em sin α / α
= Em[(α - (α3/ 3!) + (α5/5!)-…. )/α]
When α = 0 Eθ will be maximum.
⇒ (π/λ) a sinθ = 0 ⇒ θ = 0,
Thus a principal maximum is formed along the incident direction and hence is called central
maxima.
b) Minimum:
For minimum intensity,
Iθ = 0
⇒ Im (sinα/α)2 = 0
sinα = 0 ⇒ α = nπ = (π/λ) asinθ
⇒ (π/λ) asinθ = nπ,
⇒ a sinθ = n λ where n = 1,2,3,4,…
Therefore the minimum intensity are formed at angles,
θ = [sin-1(nλ/a)]
4 Fraunhoffer diffraction at double slit:
Consider a parallel beam of light of wavelength λ incident on two slits each of width a and
separated by opaque space of width b as shown in figure.

We know the equation for amplitude of diffracted light due to single slit,
Eθ = Em sin α / α where, α = (π/λ) asinθ
Two slits are identical each slit gives the same amplitude. The path difference between the two
diffracted ray is BC is given as,
BC = AB sinθ
BC = (a + b)sinθ
The phase difference between two amplitudes ϕ (say - 2β) is,
2β = (2π/λ) (a + b)sinθ
Thus we have two amplitudes of same magnitude Eθ and angle between them is 2β. The resultant
amplitude is given by,

Rθ =Eθ  Eθ  2Eθ Eθ cos 2β ]

Rθ =2Eθ 1  2 cos 2β )
Rθ =2Eθ cos β )

Rθ = 2Eθ cosβ
⇒ Rθ = 2 Em (sinα/α) cosβ
The resultant intensity is,
Iθ = 4 (Emsinα/α)2 (cos2β)
The first term (Em sinα/α)2 is the diffraction term and (cos2β) is called as interference term.
1) The diffraction term in the intensity has maximum for θ = 0.
The minimum intensity will be observed at θ = [sin-1(λ/a)]
2) Similarly from the interference term cos2β,
the intensity will be maximum when, cos2β = 1
⇒ β = ± nπ
⇒ (π/λ) (a + b) sinθ = ± nπ
⇒ (a + b) sinθ = nλ
When n = 0, θ= 0. Therefore the central maximum of the interference pattern is observed
along the direction of incident light.
3) The intensity pattern will be minimum when,
cos2β = 0
⇒ β = ± (2n+1) π/2
⇒ (π/λ) (a + b) sinθ = ± (2n+1) π/2
⇒ (a + b) sinθ = ± (2n+1) λ/2 where n= 0,1, 2, 3,…
The distribution of light intensity of diffracted light through double slit is shown in following
figure.
5 Missing order in double slit diffraction:
When condition for maxima and minima in the interference term and the condition for
minimum intensity in the diffraction term is simultaneously satisfied, those order are missing in
the spectrum.
The condition for maximum intensity in the interference term is,
(a + b) sinθ =nλ … (1)
The condition for minimum intensity in the diffraction term is,
asinθ = nλ …...(2)
Dividing 1 by 2, we get,
(a+b)/a = m/n
⇒ m = [(a+b)/a]n
1) Condition 1: If a = b ⇒ n/m = 2
⇒ n = 2m
If m = 1,2,3,4… the n = 2,4,6, … so 2nd ,4rd ,6th …order of interference maxima are missing
in the diffraction pattern because their maxima will coincide with 1st, 2nd 3rd, … order of
diffraction manima.
2) Condition 2: If 2a = b
⇒ n/m = 3
⇒ n = 3m
If m = 1,2,3,….then n = 3,5,7, … so 3nd ,5rd ,7th …order of interference maxima are missing in
the diffraction pattern because their maxima will coincide with 1st, 2nd 3rd, … order of diffraction
manima.
6 Fraunhoffer Diffraction due to N parallel equidistant slits:
Plane diffraction grating:
A plain diffraction grating consists of large number of parallel slits of equal width separated by
opaque space. All opaque space has equal width.
Consider a = width of each slit,
b = width of opaque portion
N = total no of lines on grating
(a + b) = width of line (grating element)
1/ (a + b) = Number of lines per unit length
Theory of plane transmission grating:

Consider a plane transmission grating consist of N number of parallel slits of width a and
separated by opaque space b. Let (a + b) be the grating element
Let a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength λ be incident normally on the
grating. All the secondary waves transmitting in the same direction as that of incident light will
come to focus at the point P on the screen and produces central bright maximum. The secondary
waves travelling at an angle θ with direction of incident light travel different distance. Therefore
there is path difference between the waves coming out from each slit. These waves come to
focus at the point Q on the screen and the intensity at point Q will be depends on path difference
between the secondary waves.
From the theory of single slit diffraction the amplitude is given by,
Eθ = Em sinα/α
The phase difference Ф = 2π/λ (a+b) sinθ = 2β where β = π/λ (a+b) sinθ
As there are N amplitude vectors therefore the resultant amplitude Eθ is given by,
Eθ = (Emsinα/α) [(sinNβ/sinβ)]
The intensity,
Iθ = Im (sinα/α)2 [(sinNβ/sinβ)]2
Here Im (sinα/α)2 is intensity from single slit diffraction and [(sinNβ/sinβ)]2 is the
intensity term due to N slit
Principal maxima:
Principle maxima are obtained for sinβ = 0 ⇒ β = mπ
 π/λ (a+b) sinθ = mπ
(a+b) sinθ = mλ
Minima:
For minimum intensity sinNβ = 0
⇒ Nβ = mπ
⇒ Nβ = mπ
⇒ β = mπ/N
⇒ (a+b) sinθ = mλ /N
7 Absent spectra:
For mth order principle maxima we have the equation,
(a+b) sinθ = nλ (1)
For minimum intensity in single slit,
asinθ = nλ (2)
If these two conditions are simultaneously satisfied for the same angle θ then mth order principal
maxima will be absent. Dividing the first equation by second, we get,

(a+b)/a = m/n
⇒ m = [(a+b)/a]n where n = 1, 2, 3, …. and m is an integer

8 Determination of wavelength using diffraction grating:

Wavelength of spectral lines can be determined using diffraction grating. The
experimental set up is shown in figure.

The experimental procedure is given below,

 1) First slit of collimator is illuminated by source of light
2) Collimator and telescope adjusted for parallel rays
3) The transmission grating is adjusted for normal incidence
4) The position of telescope is adjusted so that the cross wire of telescope concedes with
central maxima and corresponding reading on vernier scale is noted.
5) The telescope is moved to one side of central maxima and readings are noted for first
order and second order principal maxima.
6) Similarly the telescope is now moved to other side of central maxima and readings are
recorded.
7) The angle of first order and second order are maxima from the central maxima are
calculated.
8) The grating element is calculated using the equation,
(a+b) = (1/ no of lines per unit length)
9) The wavelength from first order using,
(a+b) sinθ = λ1
and from second order using
(a+b) sinθ = 2λ2
10) Mean wavelength is then determined which is wavelength of unknown monochromatic
source.
λmean = (λ1+ λ2)/2

9 Rayleigh criteria for resolution:

According to Rayleigh criterion two closely spaced point sources are just said to resolved
by an optical instrument if the principal maxima in the diffraction pattern of one object coincides
with first minimum in the diffraction pattern of other.
This can be explained as follows.
1) If two wavelengths are widely spaced then these can be well resolved (fig.1).
2) If principal maxima of one coincide with first minima of other, then theses two
wavelength can be resolved and this is the case of resolution called Rayleigh criterion
(fig.2).
 3) If two wavelengths are still closer, their principal maxima will be nearer and resultant
intensity curve shows one maxima at the center. And these two wavelengths can not
be seen separately and not resolved (fig.3).

10 Resolving power of optical instrument:

When two objects are very close to each other, they appear as one and may not be
possible for the eye to see them as separate. If objects are not seen separately then we say that
they are not resolved.
The ability of an optical instrument to produce distinctly separate image of two objects
located very close to each other is called as resolving power of optical instrument.
11 Resolving power of diffraction grating:
Resolving power of diffraction grating is defined as the ratio of wavelength (λ) of a line to the
wavelength difference (dλ) with next line which is seen to be just separated from first.
Resolving power = λ/ dλ
We know the equation for mth order principal maxima of wavelength λ formed at an angle θ,
(a + b) sinθ = m λ ……..1
The angular separation dθ between principal maxima of wavelength λ and λ + d λ can be
obtained by differentiating above equation,
(a + b) cosθ dθ = m dλ
⇒ dθ = [(m dλ)/ (a + b) cosθ] ……..2
In order to satisfy Reyleigh criterion, the minimum intensity after mth order principal maxima of
wavelength λ must be formed at angle θ + dθ so that it will coincide with principal maximum of
wavelength λ + d λ .
The condition for minimum intensity is,
(a + b) sinθ = nλ/N
For n = mN we get mth order maxima, for first minimum after mth order maxima n = (mN + 1),
(a+b)sin(θ + dθ) = (mN+1/N)λ
(a+b)[sinθcosdθ + cosθsindθ]= (mN+1/N)λ
(a+b)sinθ + (a+b)cosθ dθ= (mN+1/N)λ [cosdθ = 1 and sindθ = dθ]
From equation 1
m λ + (a+b)cosθ dθ = m λ + (λ/N)
(a+b)cosθ dθ = λ/N
dθ = [ λ/(N (a+b)cosθ)]
Equating equation 1 and 2 we get,
[ λ/(N (a+b)cosθ)] = [(m dλ)/ (a + b) cosθ]
Resolving power = λ/d λ = mN
Thus the resolving power of a grating depends upon the number of lines (N) on the grating and
order of spectrum.
Problems:
1. A parallel beam of light of wavelength 6000 A° is incident on a parallel glass film of
refractive Index 1.5 at 45˚. Find the minimum thickness of the film for above light which give a
maximum on reflection.
2. White light falls normally on soap film (µ=1.33) of thickness 5000A°. What wavelength,
within the visible spectrum (4000 A° to 7000 A°) will be strongly reflected?
3. A plane wave of monochromatic light falls normally on a uniformly thin film of oil which
covers a glass plate. The wavelength of the source can be varied continuously. Complete
destructive interference is obtained for wavelength 5000 A° and 7000 A° for no other
wavelength in between. Find the thickness of the oil layer.
4. A wedge shaped air film having angle of 40 seconds is illuminated by monochromatic light
and fringes are observed vertically through a microscope. The distance measured between
consecutive bright fringes is 0.12 cm. Calculate the wavelengths of light used.
5. Two glass plates enclose a wedge shaped air film touching at one edge and are separated by a
wire of 0.025 mm radius at a distance 15 cm from the edge. Calculate the fringe width when
monochromatic light of wavelength 6000 A° from a broad source falls normally on the film.
6. A beam of light of wavelength 6000 A° falls normally on a glass wedge. The fringe width is
0.5 mm. Determine the wedge angle in seconds of an arc. The refractive index of glass is 1.5.
7. A Newton’s rings setup is used with a source emitting two wavelength λ1= 6000 A° and
λ2 =4500 A°. It is found the nth dark ring due to 6000A° coincides with (n + 2) dark ring due to
4500 A°. If the radius of curvature of the lens is 90 cm, find the diameter of the nth dark ring due
to 6000 A°.
8. In Newton's ring experiment with a source emitting two wavelength λ1 = 7000 A° and λ2
= 6000 A°. It is found that the nth dark ring due to 6000 A° coincides with (n+2) dark ring due to
7000 A°. If the diameter of these overlapping dark rings is 0.5 cm, find the radius of curvature of
the lens.
9. The diameter of the sixth dark Newton’s ring formed in reflected light is observed to be
1.5 cm. When a liquid is introduced in the space between the lens and the plate, the diameter of
the same ring becomes 1.0 cm. Find the refractive index of the liquid used.
10. A diffraction grating used at normal incidence gives a green line λ1 = 5400 A° in a certain
order superimposed on the violet line λ2 = 4050 A° of the next higher order. If the angle of
diffraction is 30° how many lines are there per cm in the grating?
11. Monochromatic light of λ = 6560 A° falls normally on a grating. The spectral line diffracted
at an angle of 19° 9' from the normal in the first order. Find the width of the grating elements.
12. A parallel beam of sodium light is allowed to be incident normally on a plane grating having
4250 lines per cm and a second order spectral line is observed to be deviated through 30°.
Calculate the wavelength of the spectral line.
13. Monochromatic light emitted by a broad source of light of wavelength 6x10-10 cm falls
normally on two glass plates which enclose a thin wedge shaped film of air. The plates touch at
one end and are separated at a point 15 cm from the end by a wire 0.05 mm in diameter. Find the
width between any two consecutive bright fringes.
14. White light is incident on a soap film at an angle sin-1(π/5) and the reflected light on
examination by a spectroscope shows dark bands. Two consecutive dark bands correspond to
wavelengths 6.1x10-5 cm and 6.0x10-5 cm. If the refractive index of the film is 4/3 calculate its
thickness.
15. A convex lens is placed on a slab of plane glass and is illuminated by monochromatic light.
The diameter of the 10th dark ring is found to be 0.433cm. Find the wavelength of light if the
radius of curvature of the lower face of the lens is 70 cm.
16. In Newton's rings experiment the diameters of the nth and (n + 8)th bright rings are 4.2 mm
and 7.00 mm respectively. Radius of curvature of the lower surface of the lens is 2.0 meters.
Determine the wavelength of light