MODULE 1

INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY

CELL
• A cell is the structural and fundamental unit of life.
• The study of cells from its basic structure to the functions of every cell organelle is called
Cell Biology.
• Robert Hooke was the first Biologist who discovered cells.
• All organisms are made up of cells. They may be made up of a single cell (unicellular), or
many cells (multicellular).

CELL STRUCTURE
1. Cell Wall
 It is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
 The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane and
other cellular components.
2. Cell Membrane (plasma membrane)
 The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles, such
as the cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed.
 It separates the cell from the external environment. The cell membrane is present in all the
cells.
 It is semi permeable membrane
3. Cytoplasm
 The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane.
 Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.
 The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria, ribosomes, are
suspended in this cytoplasm.
4. Nucleus
 The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.
 It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.
 The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from the rest of
the cell.
5. Cell Organelles
• Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific functions to
carry out life’s processes.
• Some of the cell organelles are endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, mitochondria etc

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FUNCTIONS OF CELL
1. Provides Support and Structure
• All the organisms are made up of cells. They form the structural basis of all the organisms.
The cell wall and the cell membrane are the main components that function to provide
support and structure to the organism.
2. Facilitate Growth Mitosis
• In the process of mitosis, the parent cell divides into the daughter cells. Thus, the cells
multiply and facilitate the growth in an organism.
3. Allows Transport of Substances
• Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out various chemical processes going
on inside the cells.
• The waste produced by the chemical processes is eliminated from the cells by active and
passive transport.
• Small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol diffuse across the cell
membrane through passive transport.
4. Energy Production
• Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes. This energy is produced by
the cells through a process called photosynthesis in plants and respiration in animals.
5. Helps in Reproduction
• A cell aids in reproduction through the processes called mitosis and meiosis.
• Mitosis is termed as the asexual reproduction where the parent cell divides to form
daughter cells. Meiosis causes the daughter cells to be genetically different from the parent
cells.

1. Cell Wall
• Plant cell wall is a tough layer that is made up of cellulose, lignin, pectin, and
hemicellulose located outside the cell membrane.
• The primary function of the cell wall is to protect and provide structural support to the cell
as well as protect the cell against mechanical stress and to provide form and structure to
the cell.

2. Cell Membrane

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 • Cell membrane is a semi-permeable membrane present in the plant cell.
• It is one of the essential organelles as it regulates the entry and exit of different substances
within the cell.

3. Nucleus
• The nucleus is a membrane-based organelle that is found in eukaryotic cells.
• Nucleus stores DNA, RNA and controls cell division, growth and protein production.

4. Plastids
• Plastids are double-membrane organelles that are found in the cells of plants and algae.
• These organelles play a crucial role in the manufacturing and storage of food. It also
contains pigments that contribute to the process of photosynthesis.

5. Central Vacuole
• This is the largest organelle found in plant cells and is surrounded by a membrane.
• It not only stores materials and wastes but also provides proper structure to the plant,
which maintains a proper pressure for a growing plant.

6. Mitochondria
• Often referred to as the “powerhouse of the cell,” mitochondria are the double-membraned
organelles that provide energy to the cell by breaking down carbs and sugar molecules.

7. Lysosomes
• Lysosomes are membrane-bound cell organelles that contain digestive enzymes.
• Lysosomes are responsible for functions like recycling old cells, digesting materials both
inside and outside of the cell, and releasing enzymes.

8. Golgi Apparatus
• Golgi apparatus also known as Golgi Complex. It helps in packaging of proteins and lipids
and transports molecules to the different parts of the cell.

9. Endoplasmic reticulum
• It helps in protein synthesis and transport

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ANIMAL CELL

• The cell membrane is a double-layered membrane made up of phospholipids that

surrounds the entire cell. The membrane is selectively permeable and allows only certain
molecules to pass through.
• Cytoplasm is a gel- like substance that contains various cell organelles. It is protected by
the cell membrane.
• The nucleus contains the genetic material DNA located in the nucleolus region of the
nucleus. The nucleus is separated from the rest of the cell by a nuclear membrane. It also
regulates the growth and division of cells.
• Ribosomes are found freely in the cytoplasm of the cell or attached to the membranes of
endoplasmic reticulum. They help in the synthesis of proteins.
• The endoplasmic reticulum consists of a network of membranous sacs. It is of two types,
rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. It helps in production
and transporting proteins and calcium storage.
• Golgi Apparatus is a flat, layered, sac-like organelle present close to the nucleus. It packs
and transports lipids and proteins.
• Mitochondria is also known as the “powerhouse of the cell”. The process of cellular
respiration occurs here during which energy is released in the form of ATP
• Lysosomes are spherical organelles membrane-bound organelles. The enzymes present in
the lysosome break down cellular debris, waste products, and foreign substances.
• Vacoules are membrane-bound sac that stores water, food, ions, nutrients, and waste
products. Unlike plant cell, they’re smaller and less prominent in animal cells.

STEM CELLS
• Stem cells also have the ability to repair damaged cells. These cells have strong healing
power. They can evolve into any type of cell.
• Research on stem cells is going on, and it is believed that stem cell therapies can cure
ailments like paralysis and Alzheimer’s as well.

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 APPLICATIONS OF STEM CELLS
• Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease- A team of researchers have developed blood
vessels in mice using human stem cells. Within two weeks of implantation, the blood
vessels formed their network and were as efficient as the natural vessels.
• Tissue Regeneration- This is the most important application of stem cells. The stem cells
can be used to grow a specific type of tissue or organ. This can be helpful in kidney and
liver transplants.
• Treatment of Brain Diseases- Stem cells can also treat diseases such as Parkinson’s
disease and Alzheimer’s. These can help to replenish the damaged brain cells.
• Blood Disease Treatment- The adult stem cells are used to treat cancers, sickle cell
anaemia, and other immunodeficiency diseases. These stem cells can be used to
produce red blood cells and white blood cells in the body.
• Cosmetic and Anti-aging Treatments-Stem cell therapies are being explored for their
potential in rejuvenating aging skin, promoting hair growth, and improving overall
appearance.

PROKARYOTIC CELL
• “Prokaryotic cells are the cells that do not have a true nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles.”
• Prokaryotic cells are single-celled microorganisms known to be the earliest on earth.
• Prokaryotes include Bacteria and Archaea.
• The photosynthetic prokaryotes include cyanobacteria that perform photosynthesis.

COMPONENTS OF PROKARYOTIC CELLS

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The prokaryotic cells have the following components:
• Plasma Membrane- It is an outer protective covering of phospholipid molecules which
separates the cell from the surrounding environment.
• Cytoplasm- It is a jelly-like substance present inside the cell. All the cell organelles are
suspended in it.
• DNA- It is the genetic material of the cell. All the prokaryotes possess a circular DNA. It
directs what proteins the cell creates. It also regulates the actions of the cell.
• Ribosomes- Protein synthesis occurs here
• Plasmid – carries genes that provide antibiotic resistance to the cell.
• Some prokaryotic cells possess pilus and flagella which helps in locomotion.

REPRODUCTION IN PROKARYOTES
A prokaryote reproduces in two ways:
• Asexually by binary fission
• Sexually by conjugation

EUKARYOTIC CELL
• “Eukaryotic cells are the cells that contain a membrane bound nucleus and organelles.”
• Protozoa, fungi, plants, and animals all have eukaryotic cells. They are classified under the
kingdom Eukaryota.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EUKARYOTIC CELLS

The features of eukaryotic cells are as follows:
1. Membrane-bound Organelles: Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles such as
the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and
chloroplasts (in plant cells).
2. Nucleus: Eukaryotic cells have a distinct nucleus enclosed within a nuclear envelope, which
separates the genetic material (DNA) from the cytoplasm. The nucleus serves as the control
center of the cell.

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3. Complex Cytoskeleton: Eukaryotic cells possess a dynamic cytoskeleton made up of
microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. The cytoskeleton provides
structural support, facilitates cell movement, and plays a role in intracellular transport and cell
division.
4. Endomembrane System: Eukaryotic cells have an endomembrane system composed of
interconnected membranes, including the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus,
vesicles, and lysosomes.
5. Mitochondria (and Chloroplasts in Plants): Eukaryotic cells typically contain mitochondria,
which are responsible for cellular respiration and energy production through the process of
oxidative phosphorylation. Plant cells additionally contain chloroplasts, which perform
photosynthesis, converting light energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose.
6. Larger Size: Eukaryotic cells are generally larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells,
with a typical size ranging from 10 to 100 micrometers in diameter.
7. Reproduction: Eukaryotic cells reproduce through mitosis and meiosis processes that ensure
the faithful transmission of genetic material to daughter cells.
8. Multicellularity: Many eukaryotic organisms are multicellular, consisting of numerous
specialized cells organized into tissues, organs, and organ systems. This cellular specialization
allows for division of labour and increased complexity.

CARBOHYDRATES
• Carbohydrates are one of the essential
macronutrients needed by the body for energy
production.
• They are primarily composed of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen molecules.
• They can be classified into three main categories:
sugars, starches, and fibers.

Properties of Carbohydrates:

• Chemical Structure: Carbohydrates are composed of simple sugars (monosaccharides) or

larger molecules formed by the bonding of multiple sugar units (polysaccharides).
• Solubility: Many carbohydrates are soluble in water, making them easily digestible in the
body.
• Energy Density: Carbohydrates provide 4 calories per gram, serving as the body's primary
source of energy.
• Color and Taste: Carbohydrates can vary in color (e.g., white sugar, brown rice) and taste
(e.g., sweet, starchy).

Functions of Carbohydrates:
• Energy Production: The main function of carbohydrates is to provide the body with
energy. Glucose, derived from carbohydrates, is the preferred source of fuel for the brain
and muscles.
• Energy Storage: Carbohydrates are stored in the form of glycogen in the liver and muscles,
serving as a reserve energy source that can be mobilized when needed.
• Structural Support: Carbohydrates, particularly fibers, play a vital role in providing
structural support to plant cells and contributing to the bulk and texture of food.

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 • Regulation of Blood Sugar: Carbohydrates help regulate blood sugar levels by
controlling the release of glucose into the bloodstream.
• Digestive Health: Dietary fiber, a type of carbohydrate, aids in digestion by promoting
regular bowel movements and maintaining gut health.
• Weight Management: Consuming complex carbohydrates, such as whole grains and
vegetables, can help with weight management by providing a feeling of fullness and
reducing the risk of overeating.

PROTEINS -
• Proteins are macromolecules made up of amino acids,
which are the building blocks of life.
• They play crucial roles in various biological processes
and are involved in a wide range of functions in living
organisms.

Properties -
• Colour and Taste: Proteins are usually colourless and
tasteless, homogeneous and crystalline.
• Shape and Size: They range in shape from simple crystalloid spherical structures to long
fibrillar structures.
• Colloidal nature: Due to their giant sizes, proteins exhibit many colloidal properties, light-
scattering in solution, resulting in visible turbidity (Tyndall effect).
• Denaturation: This is a process that involves the disruption of the secondary and tertiary
structures of the protein, leading to the loss of biological activity.
Often, denaturation is followed by coagulation, a process in which denatured protein
molecules form large aggregates which precipitate from solution.
• Amphoteric nature: Just like amino acids, proteins are amphoteric in nature, i.e. they act as
both acids and alkalies.

Functions of proteins -
• Structural role: Proteins provide structural support to cells and tissues. For example,
collagen is a fibrous protein that forms the structural framework of connective tissues like
skin, tendons, and bones.
• Enzymatic activity: Many proteins act as enzymes, which are biological catalysts that
facilitate biochemical reactions. Examples include digestive enzymes like amylase and
protease.
• Transportation: Certain proteins function as carriers or transporters, facilitating the
movement of molecules across cell membranes or throughout the body. For instance,
hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen from the lungs to tissues
and organs.
• Muscle contraction: Proteins such as actin and myosin are vital for muscle contraction and
movement. These proteins interact to generate the force required for muscle contraction,
enabling bodily movements and locomotion.
• Hormonal regulation: Proteins serve as hormones. Eg -Hormones such as insulin, growth
hormone, and adrenaline are protein-based and play essential roles in controlling
metabolism, growth, and stress responses.
• Immune response: Proteins are integral to the immune system, where they act as
antibodies to recognize and neutralize pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and toxins.

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NUCLEIC ACIDS
• Nucleic acids are macromolecules that serve as the
information storage and transmission molecules in
living organisms.
• Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acid.
• These make up all living things genetic material.
• In a live cell, DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid and RNA
-ribonucleic acid are two forms of nucleic acids.
• A nucleotide is made up of three chemically
different components-nitrogenous base, a
monosaccharide pentose sugar and phosphate group.

Functions -
1. Information storage: Nucleic acids, particularly
DNA, store genetic information in the form of
nucleotide sequences. This genetic information
contains the instructions for the synthesis of proteins and regulates various cellular
processes.
2. Transmission of genetic information: During cellular replication, DNA is faithfully copied
and transmitted to daughter cells, ensuring the inheritance of genetic traits from one
generation to the next.
3. Protein synthesis: Nucleic acids, specifically RNA, play a central role in protein synthesis
through the process of translation.
4. Energy transfer and metabolism: Nucleic acids participate in energy transfer and metabolic
processes through molecules like adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which are involved in
cellular energy metabolism and redox reactions.
5. Immune response: Nucleic acids can trigger immune responses when recognized as
foreign by the immune system.
Eg- viral RNA or double-stranded RNA, can stimulate the production of antiviral
proteins as part of the host defense against infections.
6. Diagnostic and therapeutic applications: Nucleic acids are widely used in molecular
biology techniques for diagnostic purposes and in gene therapy which aim to modulate
gene expression and treat genetic disorders and diseases.

LIPIDS
Lipids are fatty, waxy, or oily compounds that are soluble in organic solvents and insoluble in
polar solvents such as water.
Ex- Fats and oils

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Properties of Lipids
• Lipids may be either liquids or non-crystalline solids at room temperature.
• Pure fats and oils are colorless, odorless, and tasteless.
• They are energy-rich organic molecules
• Insoluble in water
• Soluble in organic solvents like alcohol, chloroform, acetone, benzene, etc.
• No ionic charges
• Solid triglycerols (Fats) have high proportions of saturated fatty acids.
• Liquid triglycerols (Oils) have high proportions of unsaturated fatty acids.

Functions-
1. Hydrophobicity: The hydrophobic nature allows lipids to form membranes and act as
barriers between aqueous compartments within cells of organisms.
2. Energy storage: One of the primary functions of lipids is energy storage. Lipids such as
triglycerides store energy in the form of long-term fuel reserves. When broken down
through metabolism, lipids yield more energy per gram than carbohydrates or proteins,
making them efficient energy storage molecules.
3. Structural component of membranes: Lipids are essential components of cell membranes,
where they form the lipid bilayer that surrounds and encloses cells. Lipids provide
structural integrity, regulate membrane fluidity, and participate in various cellular
processes such as signaling and transport.
4. Insulation and protection: Lipids, particularly adipose tissue, serve as insulation to help
maintain body temperature by reducing heat loss. Adipose tissue also acts as a cushion to
protect organs from physical shock or injury.
5. Hormone synthesis: Lipids are precursors for the synthesis of various hormones and
signaling molecules. Estrogen and testosterone, are derived from cholesterol. These
hormones regulate diverse physiological processes including metabolism, growth,
reproduction, and stress responses.
6. Transport of fat-soluble vitamins: Lipids facilitate the absorption and transport of fat-
soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) in the bloodstream to various tissues where they are
needed for biological functions.
7. Waterproofing: Lipids provide waterproofing properties to the skin, fur, feathers, and other
biological structures. Lipid-based substances like sebum protect the skin and hair from
dehydration.

ENZYMES

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Properties -
1. Specificity: Enzymes exhibit high specificity for their substrates, meaning they catalyze
specific reactions involving particular molecules (substrates).
2. Catalytic Activity: Enzymes increase the rate of reactions without being consumed in the
process. They facilitate reactions by providing an alternative pathway with lower
activation energy.
3. Efficiency: Enzymes can accelerate reactions by factors of up to millions or even billions.
This efficiency allows cells to carry out essential processes rapidly at physiological
conditions.
4. Reusability: Enzymes can catalyze multiple reactions without being altered or consumed
in the process. They can repeatedly bind to substrates and facilitate the conversion of
substrates to products.
5. Optimal Conditions: Enzymes have specific optimal conditions for activity, including pH,
temperature, and substrate concentration. Deviations from these optimal conditions can
affect enzyme activity.

Functions of Enzymes:
• Metabolism: Enzymes play a central role in metabolism, the collective set of biochemical
reactions that sustain life. They catalyze the breakdown and synthesis of molecules such as
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
• Digestion: Digestive enzymes facilitate the breakdown of complex nutrients (e.g.,
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids) in food into simpler molecules that can be absorbed and
utilized by the body.
• DNA Replication and Repair: Enzymes such as DNA polymerases and DNA ligases are
involved in DNA replication, ensuring faithful duplication of genetic material.
Additionally, DNA repair enzymes correct errors and damage in DNA molecules to
maintain genomic integrity.
• Detoxification: Enzymes such as cytochrome P450 oxidases catalyze the detoxification
and elimination of drugs, pollutants, and toxins, from the body.
• Immune Response: Enzymes such as proteases, nucleases, and lipases are involved in the
immune response by degrading foreign pathogens (e.g., viruses, bacteria) and cellular
debris, facilitating their clearance from the body.
• Biotechnology: Enzymes are widely used in biotechnological applications, including food
processing, pharmaceutical production, environmental remediation, and DNA technology.

ENZYME CLASSIFICATION
• Oxidoreductases: Catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions by transferring electrons between
substrates. Eg – glucose oxidase
• Transferases: Transfer functional groups (e.g., methyl, acyl, phosphoryl) between
substrates. Eg -Sulfotransferase
• Hydrolases: Catalyze hydrolysis reactions, breaking bonds by adding water. Eg-
Peptidases
• Lyases: Catalyze the addition or removal of groups to form double bonds or the reverse
reaction without hydrolysis. Eg -ammonia-lyase
• Isomerases: Catalyze the rearrangement of atoms within a molecule to form isomeric
forms. Eg-Glucose Isomerase
• Ligases: Group of enzymes that catalyzes the joining of two molecules, using ATP. Eg-
DNA ligases

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 VITAMINS

Properties of Vitamins:
1. Organic Nature: Vitamins are organic compounds, meaning they contain carbon atoms
bonded to hydrogen and other elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur.
2. Essentiality: Vitamins are considered essential nutrients because they cannot be
synthesized in sufficient quantities by the body and must be obtained from the diet or
supplements.
3. Micronutrient Status: Vitamins are classified as micronutrients because they are required
in relatively small quantities compared to macronutrients like carbohydrates, proteins, and
fats.
4. Diverse Chemical Structures: Vitamins encompass a wide range of chemical structures,
including water-soluble vitamins (e.g., B vitamins, vitamin C) and fat-soluble vitamins
(e.g., vitamins A, D, E, K).
5. Role as Coenzymes or Precursors: Many vitamins serve as coenzymes facilitating
enzymatic reactions involved in metabolism and other biochemical processes.

Functions of Vitamins:
• Antioxidant Activity: Certain vitamins, such as vitamins C and E, function as antioxidants,
neutralizing harmful free radicals and protecting cells from oxidative damage caused by
reactive oxygen species.
• Energy Metabolism: B vitamins serves as coenzymes in biochemical reactions that convert
nutrients into energy (e.g., ATP production).
• Cellular Function and Growth: Vitamins are involved in various cellular functions and
processes, including DNA synthesis and repair, cell division, and cell differentiation,
which are essential for growth, development, and maintenance of tissues and organs.
• Bone Health: Vitamin D is crucial for calcium absorption and bone mineralization, playing
a vital role in maintaining bone health.
• Blood Clotting: Vitamin K is necessary for the synthesis of clotting factors in the blood.
• Immune Function: Vitamins A, C, and D, as well as certain B vitamin play roles in
supporting immune function by enhancing immune cell function, and promoting antibody
production.
• Vision: Vitamin A is essential for vision, particularly for the synthesis of visual pigments
in the retina, which are necessary for low-light and color vision.
• Neurological Function: Several vitamins, including B vitamins play critical roles in
neurological function, nerve signaling, neurotransmitter synthesis.

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 • Healthy Skin and Hair: Various vitamins, including vitamins A, C, E, and biotin,
contribute to the maintenance of healthy skin, hair, and nails by supporting cell growth,
repair, and antioxidant protection.

HARMONES
• Hormones are signaling molecules produced by glands in multicellular organisms. They
are secreted into the bloodstream or other body fluids, where they travel to target tissues or
organs to regulate physiological and behavioral processes.
• Chemical Nature: Hormones can be classified based on their chemical structure into
several categories, including peptides, steroids, amino acid derivatives, and fatty acid
derivatives.
• Target Specificity: Hormones typically act on specific target cells or tissues that possess
receptors for them. These receptors can be located on the cell surface or within the cell,
depending on the chemical nature of the hormone.
• Transportation: Hormones are transported through the bloodstream, allowing them to
reach distant target tissues. Some hormones can also act locally, without entering the
bloodstream, in a process known as paracrine signaling.
• Duration of Action: The effects of hormones can vary in duration, ranging from seconds to
days.

Functions-
1. Reproduction and Sexual Development: Hormones such as testosterone, estrogen,
progesterone regulate reproductive functions, including sexual maturation, menstruation,
and pregnancy.
2. Stress Response: Hormones such as cortisol and adrenaline are involved in the body's
response to stress, helping to mobilize energy reserves and increase alertness and
physiological readiness for action.
3. Homeostasis: Hormones play key roles in maintaining homeostasis by regulating various
physiological processes, including blood pressure, electrolyte balance, body temperature,
and water balance.
4. Mood Regulation: Hormones such as serotonin, dopamine, and oxytocin are involved in
regulating mood, emotions, and social behaviors.
5. Immune Function: Some hormones, such as cytokines modulate immune function and help
to regulate the body's defense mechanisms.

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