THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Created by : Elian Devina XI Science 1

Introduction
Basic to the functioning of any animal.

In order to survive and reproduce, an animal must

respond to environmental stimuli both external and internal. Provides both immediate and long-term responses.

Circuits of neurons and supporting cells

Most animals with nervous systems have clusters of

neurons that perform specialized functions. Such clustering is absent in the cnidarians. Most cnidarians have radially symmetrical bodies. Most cnidarians have nerve nets.

Nerves vs. Nerve Nets

Simple animals, ex. Cnidarians, have nerve nets.

More complex animals: axons of multiple nerve cells are

bundled together to form nerves. Better suited to controlling elaborate movements than a single diffuse nerve net.

Cephalization
Animals with elongated, bilaterally symmetrical bodies

have even more specialized nervous systems. Such animals exhibit cephalization.

Nervous System Organization

Look at the picture on page 1065

CNS & PNS in Vertebrates

CNS= Central Nervous System Brain and spinal cord. PNS= Peripheral Nervous System Nerves and ganglia. Regional specialization is a hallmark of both systems. The PNS connects to the CNS

CNS & PNS

Central nervous system (CNS) Brain Spinal cord Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Cranial nerves

Ganglia outside CNS

Spinal nerves

Figure 48.19

Spinal cord
The spinal cord runs lengthwise inside the spine.

It conveys information to and from the brain and

generates basic patterns of locomotion. It acts independently of the brain.

Reflexes
The spinal cord acts as part of the simple nerve circuits

that produce reflexes. A reflex protects the body by triggering a rapid, involuntary response to a particular stimulus. Ganglia run along the outside of the spinal cord

Origin of the brain & spinal cord

Derived from the dorsal embryonic

nerve cord. During development it is transformed into the narrow central canal of the spinal cord and the ventricles of the brain.

Fluid & Matter

Both the central canal and the brain are filled with

cerebrospinal fluid and Gray/White matter Cerebrospinal fluid: supplies the brain with essential nutrients and hormones. Gray Matter- neuron cell bodies and dendrites White Matter- bundled axons

Glia in the CNS

Ependymal cells- circulation of cerebrospinal fluid

Microglia- protect from invading microorganisms

Oligodendrocytes- function in axon myelination Astrocytes-structural support for neurons

PNS

Overall importance of PNS

Transmits information to and from the CNS and plays a

large part in regulating an animals movement and internal environment. Sensory information reaches the CNS along afferent (to bring toward) PNS neurons. Instructions from the CNS reach the PNS along efferent (to carry off) PNS neurons

Nerves
Cranial Nerves: connect the brain with locations mostly in organs of the head and upper body. Spinal Nerves: Run between the spinal cord and parts of the body below the head.

Systems of the PNS

Motor Systems: neurons that carry information to

muscles. Autonomic Nervous System: regulates the internal environment. This control is generally involuntary and is split into three divisions: Sympathetic, Parasympathetic, Enteric.

Sympathetic Division
Corresponds to arousal and energy generation (fight-or-

flight).
Inhibits saliva production Relaxes bronchi in the lungs Accelerates heart rate

Secretion of epinipherene

Parasympathetic Division
Promote calming and return to self- maintenance.

Rest-and-digest Slows heart rate Promotes emptying of bladder Constricts bronchi in lungs

Enteric Division
Networks of neurons in the digestive tract, pancreas, and

gallbladder. Also control peristalsis.

CNS

Brainstem

The Brain Stem

Adult brainstem midbrain, the pons, and the

medulla oblongata. Sits at the bottom of the brain, on top of the spinal cord. It relays the information between the spinal cord and the brain.

Arousal and Sleep

Controlled by the brainstem and cerebrum.

Arousal= you are aware of surroundings.

Sleep= external stimuli are received but not consciously

perceived. Reticular formation Sleep is an active process. Melatonin plays an important part in these processes.

Cerebellum

The Cerebellum
Posterior

Coordinates movements and balance, specifically helps

when you have to learn something new. Hand eye coordination

Diencephalon

The Diencephalon
3 parts: Thalamus, Hypothalamus, and Epithalamus.

Epithalamus
Location of the pineal gland, origin of melatonin.

Also contains capillaries that generate cerebrospinal fluid

from the blood. Cerebrospinal fluid: supplies the brain with essential nutrients and hormones

Thalamus
Main input center for center for sensory information going

to the cerebrum.

Hypothalamus
Controls homeostasis Ex: bodys thermostat, regulate hunger & thirst. Source of posterior pituitary hormones and releasing

hormones that act on the anterior pituitary. Plays a role in sexual and mating behaviors, fight-or-flight, and pleasure. Four Fs

Biological Clock Regulation

Specialized nerve cells in the hypothalamus regulate

circadian rhythms, daily cycles of biological activities. As stated previously: regulates sleep, body temperature, hunger, and hormone release. Molecular mechanisms that direct periodic gene expression and cellular activity. Typically synchronized with the day and night.

Biological Clock Regulation cont.

In mammals circadian rhythms are coordinated by a

group of neurons in the hypothalamus called the superchiasmatic nucleus (SCN). The SCN determines the circadian rhythm of the whole animal.

Cerebrum

The Cerebrum
Divided into right and left cerebral hemispheres.

Each hemisphere is made up of an outer covering of gray

matter, the cerebra cortex; internal white matter; and groups of neurons called basal nuclei.

Basal Nuclei
Basal Nuclei are important centers for planning and

learning movement sequences. Damage in this brain region during embryonic development can result in cerebral palsy, a defect disrupting how motor commands are issued to the muscles.

Cerebral Cortex
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe

Speech Frontal association area Taste

Somatosensory association area

Reading Speech Hearing Visual association area

Smell Auditory association area

Vision

Figure 48.27

Temporal lobe

Occipital lobe

The Cerebral Cortex

4 different lobes: frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal.

Frontal lobe: plans actions and controls your movement. Size fits muscles required. Leg- Knee- Hip.
Parietal lobe: Sensory. Size fits sensory info. Temporal lobe: Auditory & Memory Formation Occipital lobe: Visual information

Cerebral Cortex
Accounts for 80% of total brain mass.

Highly convoluted, allows for large surface area.

The corpus callosum is a thick band of axons that

enables communication between the two sides of the cerebral cortex.

Language and speech

Damage to particular regions of the cortex by injuries,

strokes, or tumors can change in a persons behavior.

Max

Hearing words

Seeing words

Min
Figure 48.29

Speaking words

Generating words

Brocas Area
Pierre Broca studied people who could understand

language, but not speak it. Located in the front part of the primary motor cortex, in the frontal lobe. Controls the speaking and the generating of the brain.

Wernicke's Area
Karl Wernicke studied damage to the back of the left

temporal lobe. People could speak, but not comprehend speech.

Lateralization
Both hemispheres have different functions.

Generally: Left side= language/speech, math, logic Right side= patterns, facial recognition (creative side)

Emotions
Limbic System: group of structures surrounding the

brainstem. Dedicated to emotion, motivation, olfaction, behavior, and memory.

Thalamus Hypothalamus

Prefrontal cortex Olfactory bulb Amygdala

Figure 48.30

Hippocampus

Memory & Learning

Hippocampus- Forms new memories

Amygdala- Fear & anxiety

Short term memories are made by links made in the

hippocampus. When memories need to be made long term, the links are replaced by links in the cerebral cortex

Long Term Potentiation

LTP: Involves an increase in the strength of

synaptic transmission

Evolution of Cognition in Vertebrates

In humans, the outermost part of the cerebral cortex is

called the neocortex. The outer part of the avian cerebral cortex is called the pallium. The common ancestor of birds and humans probably had a pallium as it still present in birds.

Schizophrenia
1% of the population has it.

Distorted perception of reality, hallucinations.

Two lines of evidence suggest that schizophrenia affects

neurons that use dopamine:

Speed- produces dopamine and produces same effects as schiz. Many drugs used for treatment block dopamine

Depression
Two types:

Major depressive disorder- Extreme Sadness

Bipolar Disorder Manic phase extremely energetic Depressive phase, same as m.d.d

Drug Addiction
Altered activity of the brains reward system, which

normally provides motivation for actions.

Alzheimers
Mental deterioration where plaques form in the brain.

Confusion and memory loss.

Parkinson's
Motor disease

Caused by the death of dopamine-secreting neurons

No cure at the time

Stem Cell Based Therapy

The adult human brain contains stem cells that can

differentiate into mature neurons, this will be helpful for replacing neurons lost to a disease or trauma.

Conclusion
Your nervous system has several different parts that play

their own special parts, but at the same time they work together. Only 10% of your brain is made up of neurons, the other 90% is glia. There are several neurological diseases.