PETROLEUM GEOLOGY

Prof. Farooq Shareef

Introduction
Petroleum from Noah to OPEC Evolution of Petroleum Exploration Concepts and Techniques

Relationship of Petroleum Geology Science

Relationship of Petroleum Geology to Petroleum Exploration and Production

From the days of Noah to OPEC the role of the petroleum geologist has become more and more skilled and demanding. A - One of the earliest exploration tools was creekology. B - Through the latter part of the nineteenth century and the early part of the twentieth, oil exploration was based on the surface mapping of anticlines. C - Stratigraphic traps were found accidentally by serendipity or by subsurface mapping and extrapolation of data gathered from wells drilled to test structural anomalies. D - Aerial surveying began in the 1920s, but photogeology. E - Pure geological exploration methods advanced slowly but steadily during the first half of the twentieth century (Micropaleontology Study biostratigraphic). F Seismic survey. J - Remote sensing from satellites. For a commercial oil accumulation to occur, five conditions must be fulfilled 1- There must be an organic-rich source rock to generate the oil and/ or gas. 2. The source rock must have been heated sufficiently to yield its petroleum. 3. There must be a reservoir to contain the expelled hydrocarbons. This reservoir must have: a. Porosity: to contain the oil and/or gas. b. Permeability: to permit fluid flow. 4. The reservoir must be sealed by an impermeable cap rock to prevent the upward escape of petroleum to the earth's surface. 5. Source, reservoir, and seal must be arranged in such a way as to trap the petroleum.

1- Chemistry and Petroleum Geology.

2-Physics and Petroleum Geology. 3-Biology and Petroleum Geology.

A - Some petroleum explorations still do not admit to a need for geologists to aid them in their search. B - Petroleum geology is only one aspect of petroleum exploration and production. Leaving aside atypical enterprises, petroleum exploration now involves integrated teams of people possessing a wide range of professional skills. C- Geophysical surveying is involved in preparing the initial data on which leasing and, later, drilling recommendations are based. Geological concepts are applied to the interpretation of the geophysical data once it has been acquired and processed.Petroleum engineering is concerned with establishing the reserves of a field, the distribution of petroleum within the reservoir, and the most effective way of producing it. Thus petroleum geology lies within a continuum of disciplines, beginning with geophysics and ending with petroleum engineering, but overlapping both in time and subject matter . D- Underlying this sequence of events is the fundamental control of economics. Oil companies exist not only to find oil and gas but, like any business enterprise, to make money. Thus every step of the journey, from leasing to drilling, to production, and finally to enhanced recovery, is monitored by accountants and economists.

Physical and Chemical Properties of Oil and Gas

Gas

Oil

Gas

Oil
Crude Oil

Chemistry

Crude oil
Crude oil is defined as "a mixture of hydrocarbons that existed in the liquid phase in natural underground reservoirs and remains liquid at atmospheric pressure after passing through surface separating facilities" (joint API ,AAPG , and SPE definition (. Most oils are lighter than water. Although the density of oil may be measured as the difference between its specific gravity and that of water, it is often expressed in gravity units defined by the American Petroleum Institute according to the following formula:

API=

141.5 Specific gravity

131.5

Chemistry
1-Paraffins. 2-Naphthenes. 3-Aromatics.

Hydrocarbon Source Rocks

Introduction

Generation of Organic Matter

Preservation in Clays

Diagenesis

Maturation of Organic Matter

Migration of Hydrocarbons

Introduction
It therefore shows how geologists seek to answer three basic questions in an exploration province. (1.) Which strata, if any, are hydrocarbon source rocks? (2.) Is the source material oil prone or gas prone? (3.) What is the degree of maturation of the source rock? A-Crude oil exhibits the property of laevorotation (the property of rotating polarized light), which is found only in biosynthesized organic compounds. B-Crude oil contains complex organic molecules, such as porphyrins and steroids, found elsewhere only in organic tissues and fluids. C-reservoir sediments totally enclosed in impermeable shales (generally rich in kerogen).

Generation of Organic Matter

The two factors that control the preservation of organic matter are *the rate of generation and **the rate of destruction. Factors that enhance organic generation on land include high temperature, abundant moisture, and long daylight hours. In marine environments, organic productivity is greatest at shallow depths, where warm water mixes with cool, nutrient-laden water from the deep ocean.

A factor that enhances the preservation of organic matter on land is waterlogged soil (as in swamps).
Organic matter tends to be preserved in low permeability, finegrained sediments, rather than permeable sands in which flushing by oxygenated ground water may destroy organic matter.

Preservation in Clays
There are three major clay minerals. 1-Kaolin (Al2032Si02 2H20). Kaolin forms in low pH (acid) environments. At the earth's surface these are, generally, also oxidizing. Thus kaolin clays generally contain little organic matter and characterize continental environments. At the earth's surface these are, generally, also oxidizing. Thus kaolin clays generally contain little organic matter and characterize continental environments. 2-Illite [KAl2(OH)2AlSi3(OH)10], Illite forms in alkaline-reducing conditions that are characteristic of marine environments. Because of their affinity for reducing conditions, illitic clays often preserve organic matter. 3-Montmorillonite (smectite or bentonite) [(MgCa)OAl2O3 5SiO2nH20]. Montmorillonite, like illite, prefers reducing environments and, therefore, may also be associated with organic matter. Expulsion of this water during burial may aid the emigration of hydrocarbons.

Diagenesis
When preserved organic matter is buried, it undergoes three phases of alteration. 1-Diagenesis. Diagenesis occurs at normal temperatures and pressures within the top few meters of the sediment column. Organic matter may be subjected to bacterial decay, oxidation, dehydration, and decarboxylation. Thus H2O, CO2, and biogenic methane (CH4) may be expelled. The result is kerogen. Clay compaction, at the same time, rapidly reduces porosity from some 60% to 40%. 2-Catagenesis. Catagenesis occurs as temperatures increase to about 250 C. Kerogen generates oil and gas. Shale porosity decreases to ~ 10%. 3-Metagenesis. Metagenesis occurs above 250 C. On the threshold of metamorphism, kerogen consists now of little more than carbon (graphite).

Maturation of Organic Matter

Three major types of kerogen can be recognized. Type I Kerogen (Algal). Chemically, type I kerogen is very rich in hydrogen, relatively low in oxygen, and contains lipids. oils, fats, and waxes. These are particularly abundant in algae, both marine and freshwater. Type I kerogen tends to generate oil and is present in may oil shales. Type II Kerogen (Liptinic). Rich in aliphatic compounds, with a hydrogen-carbon (H-C) ratio greater than one. type II kerogen originally formed from algal detritus and zooplankton and phytoplankton. Type III Kerogen (Humic). Type III kerogen has a low H:C ratio (less than 0.84), is low in aliphatics and rich in aromatic compounds. Humic kerogen is produced from the lignin of higher woody plants. This type of kerogen is gas prone.

The chemistry of these three types of kerogen is shown in Figure 1.

2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 H/C Ratio 0.1 0.2 0.3 0/C Ratio

Chemistry of kerogens and coals

0.1

0.2

0.3

Relationship between hydrocarbon generation and vitrinite reflectivity

Migration of Hydrocarbons
Geologists distinguish between two types of migration. Primary migration is the emigration of oil and gas from the source rock (clay) into permeable carrier beds. Secondary migration is the flow of hydrocarbons within permeable carrier and reservoir beds. What was the chemical stat of the emigrating fluids? Do mature oil and gas move from the source rock in discrete phases or in solution in water, or do they emigrate in some transitional phase. What are the physical processes that cause hydrocarbon to emigrate from source beds?

Introduction
The study of rocks penetrated by a borehole is termed formation evaluation .
Formation evaluation also includes geophysical or wireline well logging. These record electric, radioactive, acoustic, and other physical properties of the formation. These logs can be interpreted to determine lithology, porosity, and the presence and amount of gas or oil.

Formation evaluation is a major branch of petroleum geology and engineering.

Geophysical Well Logs

Introduction

Geophysical Logging

Integrated Facies Analysis

Geophysical Logging
The equipment that measures the geophysical properties of the rock is housed in a cylindrical sonde, which is lowered down the borehole on a cable. The measurements are transmitted up the cable and are recorded on film or magnetic tape in the logging unit. Many different parameters can be recorded, such as the resistivity, sonic velocity, density, and radioactivity of the rocks. These can be interpreted to determine the lithology of the penetrated formations, their porosity, and the nature of the fluid (oil, gas, or water) within the pores.

TABLE THE USES OF THE MAJOR GEOPHYSICAL LOGS

Integrated Facies Analysis

Reservoir Rocks

Introduction

Sandstone Reservoir

Carbonates Reservoir

Introduction

Porosity

Permeability

Porosity
It is important to separate total porosity from effective porosity. Effective porosity refers to the amount of total pore volume that is actually interconnected and thus stores and gives up fluid. Porosity is conventionally expressed as a percentage:
Porosity (%) = Volume of pore space X 100 Volume of rock smple

Most reservoir rocks have porosities of 15-30%. Porosities of less than 10% are generally subeconomic unless there are other favorable parameters (e.g., vast reservoirs, favorable geographic location, easy tax terms). Porosity is measured in one of three ways. One method is the direct measurement of a core, or core plug, in a laboratory; another method is the use of geophysical logs in boreholes, sonic velocity, neutron, or bulk density. Porosity can also be measured from seismic interval velocities.

ACLASSIFICATION OF POROSITY

Permeability
Permeability is conventionally expressed by Darcy's Law. It i measured from cores by recording the rate of flow and pressure drop when a fluid of known viscosity flows through a rock sample of known length and crosssectional area Then:

Q=

KDA

where :Q is the rate of flow in cc/sec ,K is the permeability ,D is P1 P2, and is the viscosity of the fluid.

Sandstone Reservoir
Nearly half the world's oil and gas is produced from sandstone reservoir rocks. Sandstone is defined as a sedimentary rocks formed of sand-sized grains (2.0-0.0625 mm diameter). Leaving aside carbonate sands, most sandstones are referred to terrigenous (land derived) or siliciclastic (composed largely silica minerals). Terrigenous sands are produced by the weathering and erosion of igneous, metamorphic, or pre-existing sedimentary rocks. The main mineral components are quartz (SiO2), feldspar (calcium-,sodium-, and potassium-allumino silicates), mica (potassium-, magnisium-, and iron-hydrated luminosilicates), mafic minerals (olivine, horneblende and augitemagnisium and iron silicates), and heavy minerals (iron ores, zircon, etc.). One type of maturity is chemical maturity where unstable mineral (mafics, feldspar, etc.) dissolve out resulting in a relative increase in the proportion of stable mineral grains.

Carbonates Reservoir
Carbonate Mineralogy and Components

Carbonate Environments and Facies

Reefs

Carbonate Mineralogy and Components

Most modern carbonate sediments are composed of aragonite (the orthorhombic variety of CaCO3). Most ancient limestone are made of calcite (the hexagonal variety of CaCO3). Dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2] occurs in two ways: penecontenmporaneous dolomite tends to be microcrystalline and has a low permeability unless fractured. Secondary replacemen dolomite tends to be macrocrystalline and, because there is bulk volume reduction when calcite is replaced by dolomitic often has secondary intercrystalline porosity. The various types of carbonate grain are shown in the next table. Most skeletal and oolitic limestones were deposited in high energy shoal and bar environments: Faecal pellet deposits characterize lagoons and tidal flats. Some possible origins of micrite are (1.) the disintegration of calcareous algae into individual crystallites, (2.) the organic destruction of calcareous skeletons, ranging from coral-crunching parrot fish to boring algae, (3.) the inorganic destruction of skeletons by wave action, and (4.) the direct precipitation (whitings).

CLASSIFICATION OF THE COMPONENTS OF CARBOATE ROCK

Carbonate Environments and Facies

Reefs
1-Modern Reefs A modern reef is a rigid framework of corals and coralline bryozoa encrusted and bound together by algae. Modern reefs are found in shallow (50 m), warm (20 C), clear, salty [27,000-40,000 parts per million (ppm)] water. Their geometry may be linear, as in fringing reefs, found against arid coasts, or barrier reefs, adjacent to humid coasts. Pinnacles or patch reefs are scattered randomly in lagoons or on open shelves Atolls are found at the edge of Pleistocene bevelled carbonate platforms or on drowned volcanoes as part of the Darwinian sequence. 2-Ancient Reefs Ancient reefs are composed not only of corals, bryozoa, and algae, but also of stromatoporoids and certain groups of brachiopods and lamellibranchs . Their geometry may be linear as in fringing reefs, but these are rare (low preservation potential?), or shelf margin barrier reefs.

Evaporites

Introduction

Occurrence and Formation of Evaporites

Evaporites as Cap Rocks

Introduction
Another major group of sedimentary rocks are the evaporites. Unlike the sandstones and limestones, they do not form reservoirs. They are very important to petroleum exploration, however, because evaporites make excellent cap rocks, generate traps, may act as source rocks, and confuse geophysicists. Many geologists now believe, however, that these rocks are formed, in part at least, by the replacement of previously formed carbonate sediment.

An evaporite rock, with a mixture of the minerals listed up table, will have an average density of 2.1-2.6, which is h than common values for sandstones (2.65), limestones (2.71) and dolomites (2.87).

Occurrence and Formation of Evaporites

Evaporites occur associated with shallow marine limestone dolomites, continental red shales, and sands (e.g., the Permian of the North Sea). Sedimentation is generally cyclic ,reflecting gradual increases in salinity followed by abrupt returns to normal sea water conditions. Because of this mode of ocurrence, many geologists believed that evaporites formed as a result of the progressive drying up of barred coastal basins, followed by a renewed influx of normal sea water. This is the so-called evaporating dish mechanism. Recent research into sedimentation of modern, arid salt-marsh (Arabic: sabkha) coasts has shown evaporites forming in a very different way. Many geologists now believe that the vast thicknesses of evaporites distributed around the world were not formed on the beds of deep hyper saline seas.

Lithology

Section depicts cyclical increases in salinity of evaporites

Evaporites as Cap Rocks

The essential property of the cap rock located above a hydrocarbon reservoir is that it must be impermeable. Evaporites make the perfect seal, not only because they are impermeable per se, but because, unlike lithified shales, they defor plastically, not by fracturing.

Hydrocarbon Traps
Basic Parameters of a Trap

Classification of Hydrocarbon Traps

Structural Traps

Hydrodynamic Traps

Basic Parameters of a Trap

Down figure illustrates the basic morphology and terminology of an antclinal trap. Note also that the gross pay is the vertical thickness from the top of the reservoir to the oil-water contact.

Classification of Hydrocarbon Traps

Structural traps are due to postdepositional tectonic processes (e.g., folds and faults). Stratigraphic traps are due to syndepositional sedimentary processes (reefs) or postdepositional diagenetic ones (dolomitization). Hydrodynamic traps are caused by flowing water.

Structural Traps
There are three main types of structural traps. One type is the anticline, or upfold of rock. These are illustrated in Figure.

Diagrams depict compressional and compaction anticlines

Structural Traps

A second type of structural trap is the fault trap, where porous, permeable reservoir beds are faulted against impermeable beds. Some fault planes seal, others act as permeable conduits. These are illustrated in Figure.

Structural Traps
The third type is the growth fault, which shows sediment thickening on the downthrown side. These are illustrated in Figure.

Diagrams depicts a growth fault with associated rollover anticline

Hydrodynamic Traps
The downward flow of water in a permeable bed may cause oil to be trapped in flexures which lack vertical closure. This type of pure hydrodynamic trap, illustrated in Figure.

Cross section to illustrate oil trapped hydrodynamically by flowing water :

Stratigraphic Traps
Stratigraphic Trap Exploration Techniques

Introduction

Unconformity-Associated Traps

Stratigraphic Traps Unassociated with Unconformities

Introduction
Data from Halbouty et al. (1970) show that only 13% of giant oil and gas fields are stratigraphic traps and that a further 11% are combination traps. This probably reflects our inability to locate stratigraphic traps, rather than the relative abundance of different trap types .
Traps unassociated With unconformities depositional traps - channels sandbars reefs - diagenetic traps

Traps associated with unconformities

supraunconformity palaeogeomorphic trap supraunconformity- truncation trap

Stratigraphic Trap Exploration Techniques

Traditionally, stratigraphic traps were found relatively late in the exploration of a basin when subsurface data were available from wells drilled to test for structural traps. Methods of stratigraphic trap location are either direct or indirect. Direct Methods of Stratigraphic Trap Location. Direct methods of stratigraphic trap location are principally geophysical. These include gravity and seismic prospecting for reefs, and seismic prospecting for unconformity and sand body traps. With increased seismic resolution, this technique is of ever-increasing importance. Indirect Methods of Stratigraphic Trap Location. Indirect methods of stratigraphic trap location consist mainly of subsurface facies analysis, which integrates log character analysis, dipmeter interpretation, petrographic core studies, paleontology, and regional palaeogeography. The various types of stratigraphic traps will now be outlined.

Unconformity-Associated Traps
Supraunconformity Traps Supraunconformity traps are generally sand reservoirs. Three main types may be defined as regional pinchouts, palaeochannels, and strike valley sands. Subunconformity Traps Subunconformity traps may occur in a diversity of rock types including sandstone, limestone, and various basement rocks. In many such traps, secondary porosity, due to fracturing and solution (epidiagenesis), plays a major role in reservoir development.

Stratigraphic Traps Unassociated with Unconformities

Sandstone Stratigraphic Traps Sandstone stratigraphic traps are of two main classes: channel sand bodies and marine sand bars. A - Channel sands are of three major types: 1 - Fluvial channel sands are often incised into unconformities or overbank shales and transgressed by marine shales. 2 - Deltaic channel stratigraphic fields are well-known from the Pennsylvanian sands of Oklahoma. 3 - Submarine channels, infilled by turbidite and grainflow sands, sometimes form stratigraphic traps. B - Marine sand bar stratigraphic traps may loosely be grouped into two types: 1 - Offshore bars, including tidal current sand bodies, occur on marine shelves some distance from the shoreline. 2 - Coastal marine sand bars generally have a lagoonal fine-grained fades on their landward side.

Stratigraphic traps in sandstones :A, supraunconformity pinchout ;B , supraunconformity channels ;C ,supraunconformity strike-valley sand trap ;D, subunconformity truncation trap ;E, shoestring marine sand bars