The New Science of Learning UofM Flint Presentation

A New Paradigm for Student Learning
Developed by Professor Terry Doyle

Ferris State University
www.learnercenteredteaching.wordpress.com
doylet@ferris.edu
Slides are available for download at:

www.learnercenteredteaching.wordpress.com

UofM Flint
Here is our Professional Obligation

We must follow where the
research leads us even if it makes
us uncomfortable or results in
major changes in our teaching
practices.
Here is Our Challenge?

We as teachers cant make
informed decisions about which
teaching approaches or tools to
use if we dont first understand
how our students learn.

Here is Our Challenge?
To understand how our students
learn we must understand how
their brains take in, process, and
retrieve information as well as the
numerous factors that affect these
processes.

3 Key Teaching Questions

1.What Content Should We Teach?

What would make us happy that
our students still knew and could
apply from the content and skills
of our course a year later?

2. What to spend time
on?

What knowledge and
skills do students need
to learn and what can
they look up as needed?

3. What is the best use of
our time?

What teaching actions
optimize the opportunities
for students to master the
learning outcomes of our
courses?

An Old World View of Learning
Guido Sarducci Five Minute University
Educating for Life Long Learning
Cramming and forgetting will not cut it in todays world and in the
future our students are facing.
Facing a New World
In 1973 28% of jobs in the
United States required post
secondary education.

In 2018 57-67 % of jobs will
require post secondary
education.

(Georgetown University Study, 2013)

Facing a New World
23 Exabytes of information was
recorded and replicated in 2002.

We now record and transfer that
much information every 7 days.

1 exabyte is
one quintillion bytes
1000 to the 6
th
power = watching
50,000 years of DVD 24/7

(Robert Moore, 2011)

1000
6
EB exabyte
Facing a New World

5,922,000,000 Google searches
per day.

2.1 trillion search's using Google
in 2013.

350 million photos uploaded to
Facebook each day.

Facing a New World

Currently there are hundreds of
millions of Chinese and Indian
honor students many of who will
be competing for the same jobs
our college students want.
Life Expectancy and Changes in
Retirement Systems
Current life expectancy in USA
is 78 years.

Medical breakthroughs may
allow many of our students to
live to be a 100!
Retirement may come at 75-80
years of age.
A Caution about Brain Research!
Brain systems relation to complex cognition and behavior
can only be explained satisfactorily by a comprehensive
blend of theories and facts related to all the levels of
organization of the nervous system, from molecules and cells
to physical and social environments.

(Antonio Damasio, Head of the
Department of Neurology at the
University of Iowa Medical Center)

Beware of

The Human Brain
Forget that Right-Left Brain Myth
Complex mental tasks and
behaviors and even simple task
result from a complex
coordination of activity in multiple
brain regions including both the
right and left hemispheres.

(Rekart, 2013)

Example of Hemisphere Activity

Both hemispheres are activated
when sensory images that have a
name and can be easily called to
mind( familiar people).

(Kelley et al 1998)
Guiding Students about
Learning Styles
there is no adequate evidence base
to justify incorporating learning
styles assessments into general
educational practice...

Limited education resources would
better be devoted to adopting other
educational practices that have a
strong evidence base."

(Pashler et al, 2009)
Guiding Students Learning Styles
John Hattie , author of Visible
Learning in 2012 produced a
synthesis of years of educational
research trying to figure out what
has the biggest impact upon
student learning states that,

One of the more fruitless
pursuits is labeling students with
learning styles.
Learning Styles
We are all visual and auditory
learnersevolution made certain of
it.

Advocating a Tactile/Kinesthetic style
of learning is a mistake. The direct
connectivity found in the visual and
auditory centers of the brain are not
found in the tactile modality.

(Goswami, 2006)

Learning Styles
Neither the somatosensory
cortices (which process touch) nor
the cerebellum (motor learning)
would produce the kind of long
term memories desired in school.

(Dekart, 2013)

Multitasking and Learning
92% of college students multitask
while in class.

Undergraduate college students
reported using their devices for
non-class purposes an average of
11 times during class each day.

(McCoy, 2013 Journal of Media Education)

Text messaging, specifically,
dominated as the students top
activity with 86 percent of
students admitting to texting
throughout class times.

(McCoy, 2013)
2011 study explored the perception on
how often a person thinks they are
multitasking in a 30 minute period

Subjects guessed 15

Actual 123 times

(Brasel and Gips, 2011)
Multitasking decreases mental resources
needed for new learning and study

The amount of brain activation in the areas
needed for new learning is much less then
when a single task is being learned.

(Just, Carpenter Keller, Emery, Zajac and
Thulborm 2001),

( Newman Kellert and Just 2007)

Multitasking recruits brain regions
for habit making not for higher
learning.

(Foerde, knowlton Poldrask, 2006
Heavy multitasking shortens
attention spans.

It modifies cognitive and
neurological behaviors.

(Ophir, Nass and Wagner, 2009)


It gives value to all stimuli so
distractibility increases.

(Ophir, Nass and Wagner 2009)

The Human Brain
The human brain weighs about
three (3) pounds

Contains 86 billion neurons

These neurons can make 40
quadrillion connections

(Ratey, 2001, Goldberg, 2009)

Neuroscience and Learning
We have accumulated enough
knowledge about the
mechanisms and molecular
underpinnings of cognition at
the synaptic and circuit levels to
say something about which
processes contribute (James Bibb of the
University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 2011)
We are Born to Learn
The brain was meant to explore and learn

The Definition of Learning

Learning is a change in the
neuron-patterns of the brain.

(Goldberg, 2009)
www.virtualgalen.com/.../ neurons-small.jpg

Attention Drives the Changes
Attention is almost magical in its
ability to physically alter the brain
and enlarge functional circuits.

(Merzenich and colleagues, UCSF, 2011)

Attention and Learning
When we attend to something we
are readying various cognitive
process we may need for learning.
Keeping Students Attention
Neuroscientists have a saying:
Emotion drives attention and
attention drives learningthis
makes Attention the key to
learning.


The emotional engagement
pathway is effective in capturing
and sustaining attention.


Reward for Learning
Dopamine is there to reward your
brain for learning new
information, or engaging in new
experiences.

Without dopamine, you would not
be interested in learning or trying
new things.

Emotional Contagion
A process in which a person or
group influences the emotions
or behavior of another person or
group through the conscious or
unconscious induction of
emotion states and behavioral
attitudes".

Schoenewolf, G., (1990). Emotional contagion: Behavioral
induction in individuals and groups.' 'Modern Psychoanalysis;
15, 49-61
Novelty and Attention
A key part of learning and memory
is novelty.

The hippocampus is our novelty
detector.

(Knight, 1996)
Sound Gains Attention
Unlike our eyes our ears can
never be shut.
(Elizabeth La daras)

Sound is an excellent way to gain
and regain attention.
Attention and Learning

Attention is limited and largely
fixedthere is not a lot left over for
other tasks.

(Capacity Theory, Kahneman, 1973)

General Consensus about
Attention Capacity

Attention capacity will increase or
decrease
due to:

Ones arousal level--
meaningfulness/relevance.

Type of tasknew vs. automatic

How people allocate attention-
previous experiences.

It is very important to specifically
direct the student toward the
desired object of attention.

Mistaking an Attention Problem

If students fail to comprehend
lengthy directions or
instructions, it may not be they
are not trying to pay attention
but rather a working memory
problem.

Shorter, clearer directions and
instruction can help.
Readiness to Attend
Brain regions involved in paying
attention for new learning mature
more slowly that other brain
regions.

These are the Prefrontal Cortex and
Anterior Cingulate Cortex

(Sturm and Willmes, 2001)
Prefrontal Cortex
We know that some students are
impaired in their attentional
abilities, but these can be
improved through activities that
require sustained attention.

Automatic Processes and Attention
If we have become good
at something so its
automatic (reading) this
reduces the cognitive
resources needed for a
task -

Making it more likely we
can attend to the task
being learned.
Inhibiting Automatic Processes
However, if turning off (inhibit) an
automatic process is necessary it
can be hard to do and can interfere
with learning.
Name the colors each word is
written in.
Blue
Green
Red
Purple
Black
Attention Blink
This is when the brain believes it is
done with a task

Example-
multiple choice questions-- we find
a correct answer and dont look
further

(Rekart, 2013)
Attention Blink

Lasts about second.

Anxiety increases attention blink.

A. Rock and Roll

B. Jazz and Blues

C. Punk/ Heavy Metal

D. All of the Above

E. None of the Above
The New Paradigm
A new paradigm is needed for how students see
their responsibilities for learning

1. Students need to prepare their
brains for learning each day.

2. Students need to follow the
new brain research for how to
take in, process and retrieve
information.

A New Paradigm for Student Learners

A paradigm is a particular set of
practices.
The New Paradigm

Improvements in teaching alone
cannot meet Americas
educational needs.

Students must take on new roles
and responsibilities for their
education.

There is no other solution!

Preparing to Learn
Findings from neuroscience over
the past decade has led to a new
paradigm concerning improving
students learning.

The simple but important shift in
our understanding is ---that if
the brain is prepared to learn
greater success can be expected.
Preparation for Learning Means Students
Have Addressed these Five Areas
The brain needs to function
effectively:
1. Hydration
2. Diet (glucose)
3. Exercise
4. Sleep
5. Oxygen

Hydration and the Brain
One of the most fascinating
aspects of neurons is that they
store water in tiny balloon-like
structures called vacuoles.

Water is essential for optimal
brain health and function

(Norman ,2012)
Water is needed for the brain's
production of hormones and
neurotransmitters which key the
brains communication system.

Nerve transmission requires
one-half of all the brains energy.

(Allen, Advanced Learning and Development Institute)


When you lose too much water
your brain cells lose efficiency.

(Gowin2010)
Why the Brain Needs Water

Dehydration can impair short-
term memory function and the
recall of long-term memory.

(Gowin, 2010)

Even mild levels of
dehydration can impact
school performance.

( Norman, 2012)
Diet and Learning
Glucose is the form of sugar
that travels in your bloodstream
to fuel the mitochondrial
furnaces responsible for your
brain power.

(The Franklin Institute)

The Brains Energy Source

Because neurons cannot store
glucose, they depend on the
bloodstream to deliver a constant
supply of this precious fuel.


Diet and Learning
This blood sugar is obtained
from carbohydrates: the starches
and sugars you eat in the form of
grains and legumes, fruits and
vegetables.

Diet and Learning
Too much sugar or refined
carbohydrates at one time,
however, can actually deprive
your brain of glucose depleting
its energy supply and
compromising your brain's power
to concentrate, remember, and
learn.
Diet and Learning

For learners, this research implies
that the contents and timing of
meals may need to be
coordinated to have the most
beneficial cognitive effects that
enhance learning.

Web MD Food Recommendations for
Healthy Brain Function
Blueberries
Avocadoes
Dark Chocolate
Nuts and seeds
Beans
Fresh brewed Tea
Whole Grains
Wild Salmon
Exercise, Learning and Memory

Movement and Learning
Natural selection developed a
human brain to solve problems
of survival in outdoor, unstable
environments while in almost
constant motion.
(Medina, 2008)
Our brains were shaped and
sharpened by movement.

We continue to require regular
physical activity in order for our
brains to function optimally.

(Raichlen and Polk, 2013)
Recent studies have shown-

regular exercise, even walking,
leads to more robust mental
abilities, beginning in childhood
and continuing into old age.
(Raichlen and Polk, 2013)

Movement is Best for Learning

We need to rethink our learning
environments to allow for a
great deal more movement.
Exercise and Learning
Exercise is the single most
important thing a person can do
to improve their learning.

(John Ratey, 2008, Spark, The Revolutionary New
Science of Exercise and the Brain)

Exercise Stimulates Synaptic Growth
Exercise stimulates the
production of new synapses,
whose capacity and
efficiency underlie superior
intelligence.

(Art Kramer of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign)

It thus provides more
generalizable benefits
How does Exercise Boost Learning?
Exercise increases production of
neurotransmitters that help:
1. Concentration
2. Attention
3.Motivation
4. Patience
5. Mood (more optimistic)

(Ratey, 2008)

Energy
Calm
Exercise Increases Production of BDNF

BDNF
(Brain-derived neurotrophic factor )

Enhances the wiring of neurons.

(Ratey, 2008)

Miracle Gro for the
Brain
Exercise Produces BDNF
Improves brain health

Is a stress inoculator

Makes the brain cells
more resilient

(Ratey, 2008)

BDNF and Exercise
In particular BDNF seems to be important for long term memories
(Ratey, 2008)
Cognitive Benefits in a Pill
Researchers from the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute at Harvard
Medical School (HMS) have also discovered that it may be possible to
capture these benefits(BDNF) in a pill.
The same protein that stimulates brain growth via exercise could
potentially be bottled and given to patients experiencing cognitive
decline, including those in the beginning stages of Alzheimers and
Parkinsons.

(Bruce Spiegelman of Dana-Farber and HMS and Michael E. Greenberg, PhD, chair of
neurobiology at HMS.,2013)
Exercise, Stress and Learning
Students rarely know that toxic
levels of stress erode the
connections between the
billions of nerve cells in the brain
or that chronic depression
shrinks certain areas of the
brain.
(Jesper Mogensen , Department of Psychology,
University of Copenhagen.

Exercise, Stress and Learning
Conversely exercise unleashes a
cascade of neurochemicals and
growth factors that can reverse
this process, physically
bolstering the brain's
infrastructure.

(Jesper Mogensen , Department of Psychology, University
of Copenhagen.

Exercise and Stress
"In fact, the brain responds like
muscles do, growing with use
and withering with inactivity.

Exercise causes neurons
(dendrites) to grow and bloom,
thus enhancing brain function at
a fundamental level."
Jesper Mogensen ,Department of Psychology, University
of Copenhagen

Short Term Stress
Acute stress activates selective
CRH molecules (corticotropin)
releasing hormones, which
disrupt the process by which the
brain collects and stores
memories. (Baram,2010)

How Sleep Affects Learning and Memory
How Much Sleep is Enough
How much sleep is enough,
varies from person to
person. It's usually six to
eight hours, but could range
from five to 10 hours.

(UW-Madison sleep researcher Dr. Chiara Cirelli,2014)

Read more: http://www.wisn.com/news/sleep-is-more-about-resting-
brain-than-body-uw-researcher-says/24673384#ixzz2uS3xn98S

How Much is Right for You
The key is finding the right amount
of sleep that allows your brain to
complete its process before
rebooting for the next day.

If you get tired during the day, lose
concentration or focus, even
occasionally, each day, chances are
you're not getting enough sleep.
(UW-Madison sleep researcher Dr. Chiara Cirelli,
2014)

Sleep, Memory and Learning
50 to 70 million adults in the
United States alone have a sleep
or wakefulness disorder, according
to the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention.

Sleep and Brain Health
1n 2012 University of
Rochester neurosurgeon Maiken
Nedergaard, identified the brains
waste-removal mechanism the
glymphatic system.

The glymphatic system relies
on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to flush
out neurotoxins via pathways
separate from the lymphatic system.

(Journal of Science, 2013)


Among the toxins that are flushed
is beta amyloid, a protein thats
found in clumps in the brains of
Alzheimers sufferers.

In 2013, Nedergaards research
team followed up on this
discovery by identifying hidden
caves that open in the brain
while we sleep, allowing
cerebrospinal fluid to flush out
neurotoxins through the spinal
column.

(Journal of Science, 2013)

The implications of this research
cant be overstated: failing to
get enough sleep isnt just a bad
idea for all of the reasons we
already know, but over time it
could also lead to neurological
disorders like Alzheimers.

How Sleep Affects Learning and Memory
Memories are Made During Sleep
Most sleep researchers now
agree that sleep plays an
important role in the formation
of long term memories .

(Stickgold, 2005).
The Importance of Sleep to Learning
Weve learned that sleep before
learning helps prepare your brain
for initial formation of memories,

And then, sleep after learning is
essential to help save and cement
that new information into the
architecture of the brain, meaning
that youre less likely to forget it.

(Dr. Matthew Walker, a sleep scientist at the University
of California, Berkeley).

Sleep and Learning
The non-REM stages of sleep
seem to prime the brain for
good learning the next day.

You cant pull an all-nighter
and still learn effectively,
Learning Readiness and Sleep
Electrical impulses
(spindles) help to shift
memories from the brain's
hippocampus -- which has
limited storage space -- to
the nearly limitless
prefrontal cortex's , thus
freeing up the
hippocampus to take in
fresh data (new learning)
the next day.

(Walker, 2010)
Sleep is the key to having a
brain that is ready to learn

Learning Readiness and Sleep

"A lot of that spindle-rich sleep
is occurring the second half of
the night, so if you sleep six
hours or less, you are
shortchanging yourself and
impeding your learning

(Mander, 2011).
Advice to Students
Realize that the sleep you get
the night after you study is at
least as important as the sleep
you get the night before you
study.

When it comes to sleep and
memory, he says, you get very
little benefit from cutting
corners.
Rehearsal of Learning before Sleep

A 2012 study out of the
University of Notre Dame
confirms that sleeping directly
after learning something new is
beneficial for memory.

(Payne, Tucker, Ellenbogen, Wamsley, 2012 )

Rehearsal of Learning before Sleep

it would be a good thing to
rehearse any information you
need to remember just prior to
going to bed.

(Payne, Tucker, Ellenbogen, Wamsley, 2012 )

Sleep and Creativity
Sleep also seems to reorganize
memories, extracting the
emotional details and
reconfiguring the memory to
help us produce new and
creative ideas.

(Wagner, U., Gais, S., Haider, H., Verleger, R., & Born, J. (2004).
Sleep and Problem Solving
In addition, REMthe most
active stage of sleepseems
to play a role in linking together
related memories, sometimes
in unexpected ways.

Thats why a full night of sleep
may help with problem-solving.

(Stickgold, 2013)
Awake but Off Line

New findings suggest that when
the brain is sleep deprived even
though the person is fully awake
the neurons used for important
mental task switch off.

(Chiara Corelli,2011 Nature)

Awake but Off Line
This is likely to have
consequences on mental
performance and we likely
function less well the longer
weve been awake.

(Chiara Corelli,2011, Nature)

Less Sleep Equals Lower GPA
2012 study from the University of
Arkansas Sleep and Learning Lab
concluded that students that
consistently got less than the
recommended 7-8 hours of sleep each
night had lower GPAs than students
with 7-8 hours of sleep.
No Eight Oclock Classes

The University of Arkansas study
went so far as to recommend
that colleges and universities
consider not offering 8 am
classes.
Naps Help Learning
Humans are supposed to nap
daily. Twenty to thirty minutes is
ideal.
(Dement, 2009)

A NASA study found pilots who
napped for 27 minutes in the
afternoon improved their flying
performance by 34% .

(Dinges, 2005).
Dinges, D. (

Rest after Learning Improves Recall
Neuroscientist Lila Davachi
of NYU found that during
rest periods following new
learning the areas of the
brain used during new
learning were just as active
as they were when they
were learning the task

Dr Lila Davachi, NYU's Department of Psychology and Center
for Neural Science.
Significance of this Finding
The greater the correlation
between rest and learning the
greater the chance of
remembering the task in later
tests.

Taking a break after class can
actually help you retain the
information you just learned." Dr
Lila Davachi
Oxygen Use by the Brain
Although the brain
represents only 2% of
the body weight, it
receives 15% of the
cardiac output and 20%
of total body oxygen
consumption.

( Magistretti,Pellerin andMartin )

Every breath you take converts to
energy. Human cells use nutrients
from food and oxygen to create
Adenosine Tri-Phosphate (ATP), the
energy source that fuels cell
function.

Too little oxygen = less energy.

( Magistretti,Pellerin andMartin )

Oxygen is essential for brain
function, and enhanced blood
flow increases the amount of
oxygen transported to the brain.
Physical activity is a reliable way
to increase blood flow, and
hence oxygen, to the brain.
(Eric Jensen, 2005)
References
REFERENCES
http://www.brainadvance.org/ Allen, Corinne (Water and Brain health,
Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives (Complete ed.). New
York, New York: Longman.
Andrews, J. D. (1980). The verbal structure of teacher questions: Its impact on class discussion. POD Quarterly, 2, 130-163.
Arnsten, A. F. T., Paspalas, C. D., Gamo, N. J., Yang, Y., & Wang, M. (2010). Dynamic network connectivity: A new form of neuroplasticity. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 365-75.
Aronson, J. (2007). In The secret to raising smart kids by Carol Dweck. Scientific American. 29 Jul. Retrieved November 5, 2010 from http://homeworkhelpblog.com/the-secret-
to-raising-smartkids/
Arum, R., & Roksa, J. (2011). Academically adrift: Limited learning on college campuses. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
Atkins, D. (2010). Response to the article Fixed mindset vs. growth mindset: Which one are you? by Michael Graham Richard. Retrieved May 5, 2010 from
http://michaelgr.com/2007/04/15/fixed-mindset-vs-growth-mindset-which-one-are-you/
Banaszynski, J. (2000). Teaching the American revolution: Scaffolding to success. Education World: The Educators Best Friend. Retrieved November 1, 2010 from
http://www.educationworld.com/a_curr/curr218.shtml
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, New York: W.H. Freeman.
Baram, T. Z., Chen, Y., Dub, C. M., & Rice, C. J. (2008). Rapid loss of dendritic spines after stress involves derangement of spine dynamics by corticotropin-releasing hormone.
Journal of Neuroscience, 28, 2903-11.
Barrett, N. F. Cognitive styles and strategies. Unpublished. Retrieved January 22, 2011 from http://barrett-evaluations.com/_pdfs/cogstrategies.pdf
Barton, J., Heilker, P., & Rutkowsk, D. (2008). Fostering effective classroom discussions. Retrieved February 12, 2011 from
http://www.utoledo.edu/centers/ctl/teaching_resources/Fostering_Effective_Classroom_Discussions.html
Bibb, J. A., Mayford, M. R., Tsien, J. Z., & Alberini, C. M. (2010). Cognition enhancement strategies. The Journal of Neuroscience, 10 November, 30(45), 14987-14992.
doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4419-1.
Birbili, M. (2006). Mapping knowledge: Concept maps in early childhood education. Early Childhood Research and Practice, 8(2).
Bjork, D. R. (1994). Memory and metamemory: Considerations in the training of human beings. Metacognition: Knowing about knowing, J. Metcalfe and A. Shimamura (Eds.). 185-
205. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Bjork, D. (2001). How to succeed in college: Learn how to learn. APS Observer, 14(3), 9.
health: Key roles of growth factor cascades and inflammation. Trends in Neurosciences, 30(10), 489.
: Alliance.
Address: Learning in school and out. Educational Researcher, 16(9), 13-20.

References
Bligh, D. A. (2000). Whats the use of lectures? San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass.
Bloom, B. S., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals, by a committee of college and university examiners. Handbook 1: Cognitive domain. New York, New York: Longmans.
Bohn, R., & Short, J. E. (2009). How much information? 2009 report on American consumers. Retrieved October 15, 2010 from http://hmi.ucsd.edu/pdf/HMI_2009_ConsumerReport_Dec9_2009.pdf
Bok, D. (2006). Our underachieving colleges: A candid look at how much students learn and why they should be learning more. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Bottge, B. A., Rueda, E., Serlin, R., Hung, Y. H., & Kwon, J. (2007). Shrinking achievement differences with anchored math problems: Challenges and possibilities. Journal of Special Education, 41, 31-49.
Brain seeks patterns where none exist. (2008). Scientific American. Retrieved November 13, 2010 from http://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/episode.cfm?id=brain-seeks-patterns-where-none-exi-
Brainard, J., & Fuller, A. (2010). Graduation rates fall at one-third of 4-year colleges. Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved December 12, 2010 from http://chronicle.com/article/Graduation-Rates-Fall-at/125614/
Bransford, J., National Research Council, Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning, National Research Council, & Committee on Learning Research and Educational Practice. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school (Expanded ed.). Washington,
D.C.: National Academy Press.
Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (ed.). (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school (Expanded ed.). Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press.
Brookfield, S. D., & Preskill, S. (2005). Discussion as a way of teaching: Tools and techniques for democratic classrooms (2nd ed.). San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass.
Brown, G., & Atkins, M. (1988). Effective teaching in higher education. London: Methuen.
Brown, J. (1958). Some tests of the decay theory of immediate memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 10, 12-21.
Brown, J. S., Collins , A., & Duguid, P. (1989.) Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-42.
Brown, J. S. (1999). Learning, working & playing in the digital age: A speech given at the 1999 Conference on Higher Education of the American Association for Higher Education. Retrieved October 18, 2010 from http://www.ntlf.com/html/sf/jsbrown.pdf
Bruffee, K. (1993). Collaborative learning: Higher education, interdependence and the authority of knowledge. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Bruffee, K. (1984). Collaborative learning and the conversation of mankind. College English. 46(7), 635-652.
Caine, G., & Caine, R. (2006). Meaningful learning and the executive functions of the human brain. In Johnson, S., & Taylor, K. (eds.), The Neuroscience of Adult Learning, 53-62. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass.
Caine, G., McClintic, C., & Klimek, K. (2009). 12 Brain/Mind learning principles in action. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press.
Caine, R., & Caine, G. (1991). Making connections: Teaching and the human brain. Alexandria, Virginia: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Carles, S. Jr., Curnier, D., Pathak, A., Roncalli, J., Bousquet, M., Garcia, J., . . . Senard, J. (2007). Cardiac rehabilitation: Brief report effects of short-term exercise and exercise training on cognitive function among patients with cardiac disease. Journal of Cardiopulmonary
Rehabilitation & Prevention, 27(6), 395-399. doi:10.1097/01.HCR.0000300268.00140.e6.
Carmichael, M. (2007). Stronger, faster, smarter. Newsweek, March 26.
Carnegie Mellon Learning Principles. Retrieved January 24, 2011, from http://www.cmu.edu/teaching/principles/learning.html
Cashman, T. G. (2007). Issues-centered projects for classrooms in the United States and Mexico borderlands. Journal of Authentic Learning, 4(1), 9-24.
Cassady, J. C., & Johnson, R. (2002). Cognitive test anxiety and academic performance. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 27(2), 270-295.
Chamberlin, S. A., & Moon, S. (2005). Model-eliciting activities: An introduction to gifted education. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 17, 37-47.
Chan, J. C., McDermott, K. B., & Roediger, H. L. (2007). Retrieval-induced facilitation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 135(4), 553-571.
Charbonnier, E., Huguet, P., Brauer, M., & Monte, J. (1998). Social loafing and self-beliefs: Peoples collective effort depends on the extent to which they distinguished themselves as better than others. Social Behavior and Personality, 26(4), 329-340.
doi:10.2224/sbp.1998.26.4.329.
Chickering, A. W., & Gamson, Z. F. (1991). Applying the seven principles for good practice in undergraduate education. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 47. San Francisco, California: Jossey Bass.
Collier, K. G. (1980). Peer-group learning in higher education: The development of higher-order skills. Studies in Higher Education, 5(1), 55-62.
Cooke, S. F., & Bliss, T.V. (2006). Plasticity in the human central nervous system. Brain, 129(7), 165973. doi:10.1093/brain/awl082. PMID 16672292.
Cooper, J., & Associates. (1990). Cooperative learning and college instruction. Long Beach, California: Institute for Teaching and Learning, California State University.
Cooperative Institutional Research Program. (1995). 1994 Nine year follow-up survey (of 1985 freshmen). Higher Education Research Institute at UCLA. Retrieved October 18, 2010 from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3211250
Cotm, C., Carl, W., Berchtold, N., & Christie, L. A. (2007). Corrigendum: Exercise builds brain
References
REFERENCES
http://www.brainadvance.org/ Allen, Corinne (Water and Brain health,
Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives (Complete ed.). New
York, New York: Longman.
Andrews, J. D. (1980). The verbal structure of teacher questions: Its impact on class discussion. POD Quarterly, 2, 130-163.
Arnsten, A. F. T., Paspalas, C. D., Gamo, N. J., Yang, Y., & Wang, M. (2010). Dynamic network connectivity: A new form of neuroplasticity. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 365-75.
Aronson, J. (2007). In The secret to raising smart kids by Carol Dweck. Scientific American. 29 Jul. Retrieved November 5, 2010 from http://homeworkhelpblog.com/the-secret-
to-raising-smartkids/
Arum, R., & Roksa, J. (2011). Academically adrift: Limited learning on college campuses. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
Atkins, D. (2010). Response to the article Fixed mindset vs. growth mindset: Which one are you? by Michael Graham Richard. Retrieved May 5, 2010 from
http://michaelgr.com/2007/04/15/fixed-mindset-vs-growth-mindset-which-one-are-you/
Banaszynski, J. (2000). Teaching the American revolution: Scaffolding to success. Education World: The Educators Best Friend. Retrieved November 1, 2010 from
http://www.educationworld.com/a_curr/curr218.shtml
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, New York: W.H. Freeman.
Baram, T. Z., Chen, Y., Dub, C. M., & Rice, C. J. (2008). Rapid loss of dendritic spines after stress involves derangement of spine dynamics by corticotropin-releasing hormone.
Journal of Neuroscience, 28, 2903-11.
Barrett, N. F. Cognitive styles and strategies. Unpublished. Retrieved January 22, 2011 from http://barrett-evaluations.com/_pdfs/cogstrategies.pdf
Barton, J., Heilker, P., & Rutkowsk, D. (2008). Fostering effective classroom discussions. Retrieved February 12, 2011 from
http://www.utoledo.edu/centers/ctl/teaching_resources/Fostering_Effective_Classroom_Discussions.html
Bibb, J. A., Mayford, M. R., Tsien, J. Z., & Alberini, C. M. (2010). Cognition enhancement strategies. The Journal of Neuroscience, 10 November, 30(45), 14987-14992.
doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4419-1.
Birbili, M. (2006). Mapping knowledge: Concept maps in early childhood education. Early Childhood Research and Practice, 8(2).
Bjork, D. R. (1994). Memory and metamemory: Considerations in the training of human beings. Metacognition: Knowing about knowing, J. Metcalfe and A. Shimamura (Eds.). 185-
205. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Bjork, D. (2001). How to succeed in college: Learn how to learn. APS Observer, 14(3), 9.
health: Key roles of growth factor cascades and inflammation. Trends in Neurosciences, 30(10), 489.
: Alliance.
Address: Learning in school and out. Educational Researcher, 16(9), 13-20.

References
Crisp, B. (2007). Is it worth the effort? How feedback influences students subsequent submission of assessable work. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 32(5), 571-581.
Cull, W. (2000). Untangling the benefits of multiple study opportunities and repeated testing for cued recall. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 14, 215-235.
Customer Service Training. McDonalds developed by 3dsolve.com. Retrieved December 12, 2010 from http://www.3dsolve.com/
Schacter, D. (2001). The seven sins of memory. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin.
Dale, E. (1969). Cone of experience, in educational media: Theory into practice. Wiman, R.V. (ed). Columbus, Ohio: Charles Merrill.
Damasio, A. R. (2001). Fundamental feelings. Nature, 413, 781.
Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes' error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain. New York, New York: Grosset/Putnam.
Davachi, L., & Bernhard, P. S., (2009). Mind the gap: Binding experiences across space and time in the human hippocampus. Neuron, 63(2), 267-276. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2009.06.024.
Davachi. L., Tambini, A. & Ketz, N. (2010). Enhanced brain correlations during rest are related to memory for recent experiences. Neuron, 65(2), 280290.
De Byl, P. (2009). Is there an augmented reality future for e-learning? Proceedings of the IADIS International Conference on e-Learning Algarve, Portugal 17-20 June. Retrieved March 12, 2011 from http://www.iadisportal.org/e-learning-2009-proceedings
De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. Amsterdam: Noord-Hollandsche Uitgeversmaatschappij.
Deheane, S. (2009). Reading in the brain. New York, New York: Penguin Publishing.
Devlin, K. (2002). In PBS literacy links program synopses, p.12. Retrieved February 12, 2011 from http://www.ketadultlearning.org/pdf/ged_synopses.pdf
Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. Boston, Massachusetts: D.C. Heath.
Diefes-Dux, H., Follman, D., Imbrie, P.K., Zawojewski, J., Capobianco, B., & Hjalmarson, M. (2004). Model eliciting activities: An in-class approach to improving interest and persistence of women in engineering. Proceedings of the 2004 American Society for Engineering Education
Annual Conference & Exposition. American Society for Engineering. Retrieved October 29, 2010 from http://www.iwitts.com/html/022diefes-dux.pdf
Diekelmann, S., & Born, J. (2010). Slow-wave sleep takes the leading role in memory reorganization. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 11, 218. doi:10.1038/nrn2762-c2
Dondlinger, M. J. (2007). About serious games. Journal of Applied Educational Technology, 4(1). Retrieved January 17, 2011 from http://www.abfirstresponse.co.uk/Aybee/serious%20games.html
Donovan, M. S., Bransford, J. D., & Pellegrino, J. W. (Eds.). (1999). How people learn: Bridging research and practice. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Doyle, T. (2008). Helping students learn in a learner centered environment: A guide to teaching in higher education. Sterling, Virginia: Stylus.
Duclukovic, N. M., & Wagner, A. D. (2006). Attending to remember and remembering to attend. Neuron, 49, 784-787.
Duncan, N. (2007). Feed-forward: Improving students use of tutor comments. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 32(3), 271-283.
Dux, P. E., Ivanoff, J., Asplund, C. L. O., & Marois, R. (2006). Isolation of a central bottleneck of information processing with time-resolved fMRI. Neuron, 52(6), 1109-1120.
Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York, New York: Random House.
Dweck, C. S. (2007). Interview in Stanford News. Retrieved March 11, 2011 from http://news.stanford.edu/news/2007/february7/videos/179_flash.html
Dweck, C. S. (2009). Mindset: Powerful insights from interview on the Positive Coaching Alliance website. Retrieved October 28, 2010 from http://www.positivecoach.org/carol-dweck.aspx
Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology. New York, New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.
References
Bligh, D. A. (2000). Whats the use of lectures? San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass.
Bloom, B. S., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals, by a committee of
college and university examiners. Handbook 1: Cognitive domain. New York, New York: Longmans.
Bohn, R., & Short, J. E. (2009). How much information? 2009 report on American consumers. Retrieved October 15, 2010 from
http://hmi.ucsd.edu/pdf/HMI_2009_ConsumerReport_Dec9_2009.pdf
Bok, D. (2006). Our underachieving colleges: A candid look at how much students learn and why they should be learning more. Princeton,
New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Bottge, B. A., Rueda, E., Serlin, R., Hung, Y. H., & Kwon, J. (2007). Shrinking achievement differences with anchored math problems:
Challenges and possibilities. Journal of Special Education, 41, 31-49.
Brain seeks patterns where none exist. (2008). Scientific American. Retrieved November 13, 2010 from
http://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/episode.cfm?id=brain-seeks-patterns-where-none-exi-
Brainard, J., & Fuller, A. (2010). Graduation rates fall at one-third of 4-year colleges. Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved December 12,
2010 from http://chronicle.com/article/Graduation-Rates-Fall-at/125614/
Bransford, J., National Research Council, Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning, National Research Council, & Committee
on Learning Research and Educational Practice. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school (Expanded ed.). Washington,
D.C.: National Academy Press.
Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (ed.). (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school (Expanded ed.).
Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press.
Brookfield, S. D., & Preskill, S. (2005). Discussion as a way of teaching: Tools and techniques for democratic classrooms (2nd ed.). San
Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass.
Brown, G., & Atkins, M. (1988). Effective teaching in higher education. London: Methuen.
Brown, J. (1958). Some tests of the decay theory of immediate memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 10, 12-21.
Brown, J. S., Collins , A., & Duguid, P. (1989.) Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-42.
Brown, J. S. (1999). Learning, working & playing in the digital age: A speech given at the 1999 Conference on Higher Education of the
American Association for Higher Education. Retrieved October 18, 2010 from http://www.ntlf.com/html/sf/jsbrown.pdf
Bruffee, K. (1993). Collaborative learning: Higher education, interdependence and the authority of knowledge. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns
Hopkins University Press.
Bruffee, K. (1984). Collaborative learning and the conversation of mankind. College English. 46(7), 635-652.
Caine, G., & Caine, R. (2006). Meaningful learning and the executive functions of the human brain. In Johnson, S., & Taylor, K. (eds.), The Neuroscience of Adult Learning, 53-62.
San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass.
Caine, G., McClintic, C., & Klimek, K. (2009). 12 Brain/Mind learning principles in action. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press.
Caine, R., & Caine, G. (1991). Making connections: Teaching and the human brain. Alexandria, Virginia: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Carles, S. Jr., Curnier, D., Pathak, A., Roncalli, J., Bousquet, M., Garcia, J., . . . Senard, J. (2007). Cardiac rehabilitation: Brief report effects of short-term exercise and exercise training on cognitive function among patients with cardiac disease. Journal of Cardiopulmonary
Rehabilitation & Prevention, 27(6), 395-399. doi:10.1097/01.HCR.0000300268.00140.e6.
Carmichael, M. (2007). Stronger, faster, smarter. Newsweek, March 26.
Carnegie Mellon Learning Principles. Retrieved January 24, 2011, from http://www.cmu.edu/teaching/principles/learning.html
Cashman, T. G. (2007). Issues-centered projects for classrooms in the United States and Mexico borderlands. Journal of Authentic Learning, 4(1), 9-24.
Cassady, J. C., & Johnson, R. (2002). Cognitive test anxiety and academic performance. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 27(2), 270-295.
Chamberlin, S. A., & Moon, S. (2005). Model-eliciting activities: An introduction to gifted education. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 17, 37-47.
Chan, J. C., McDermott, K. B., & Roediger, H. L. (2007). Retrieval-induced facilitation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 135(4), 553-571.
Charbonnier, E., Huguet, P., Brauer, M., & Monte, J. (1998). Social loafing and self-beliefs: Peoples collective effort depends on the extent to which they distinguished themselves as better than others. Social Behavior and Personality, 26(4), 329-340.
doi:10.2224/sbp.1998.26.4.329.
Chickering, A. W., & Gamson, Z. F. (1991). Applying the seven principles for good practice in undergraduate education. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 47. San Francisco, California: Jossey Bass.
Collier, K. G. (1980). Peer-group learning in higher education: The development of higher-order skills. Studies in Higher Education, 5(1), 55-62.
Cooke, S. F., & Bliss, T.V. (2006). Plasticity in the human central nervous system. Brain, 129(7), 165973. doi:10.1093/brain/awl082. PMID 16672292.
Cooper, J., & Associates. (1990). Cooperative learning and college instruction. Long Beach, California: Institute for Teaching and Learning, California State University.
Cooperative Institutional Research Program. (1995). 1994 Nine year follow-up survey (of 1985 freshmen). Higher Education Research Institute at UCLA. Retrieved October 18, 2010 from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3211250
Cotm, C., Carl, W., Berchtold, N., & Christie, L. A. (2007). Corrigendum: Exercise builds brain
References
Crisp, B. (2007). Is it worth the effort? How feedback influences students subsequent submission of assessable work. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 32(5), 571-581.
Cull, W. (2000). Untangling the benefits of multiple study opportunities and repeated testing for cued recall. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 14, 215-235.
Customer Service Training. McDonalds developed by 3dsolve.com. Retrieved December 12, 2010 from http://www.3dsolve.com/
Schacter, D. (2001). The seven sins of memory. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin.
Dale, E. (1969). Cone of experience, in educational media: Theory into practice. Wiman, R.V. (ed). Columbus, Ohio: Charles Merrill.
Damasio, A. R. (2001). Fundamental feelings. Nature, 413, 781.
Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes' error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain. New York, New York: Grosset/Putnam.
Davachi, L., & Bernhard, P. S., (2009). Mind the gap: Binding experiences across space and time in the human hippocampus. Neuron, 63(2), 267-276. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2009.06.024.
Davachi. L., Tambini, A. & Ketz, N. (2010). Enhanced brain correlations during rest are related to memory for recent experiences. Neuron, 65(2), 280290.
De Byl, P. (2009). Is there an augmented reality future for e-learning? Proceedings of the IADIS International Conference on e-Learning Algarve, Portugal 17-20 June. Retrieved March 12, 2011 from http://www.iadisportal.org/e-learning-2009-proceedings
De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. Amsterdam: Noord-Hollandsche Uitgeversmaatschappij.
Deheane, S. (2009). Reading in the brain. New York, New York: Penguin Publishing.
Devlin, K. (2002). In PBS literacy links program synopses, p.12. Retrieved February 12, 2011 from http://www.ketadultlearning.org/pdf/ged_synopses.pdf
Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. Boston, Massachusetts: D.C. Heath.
Diefes-Dux, H., Follman, D., Imbrie, P.K., Zawojewski, J., Capobianco, B., & Hjalmarson, M. (2004). Model eliciting activities: An in-class approach to improving interest and persistence of women in engineering. Proceedings of the 2004 American Society for Engineering Education
Annual Conference & Exposition. American Society for Engineering. Retrieved October 29, 2010 from http://www.iwitts.com/html/022diefes-dux.pdf
Diekelmann, S., & Born, J. (2010). Slow-wave sleep takes the leading role in memory reorganization. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 11, 218. doi:10.1038/nrn2762-c2
Dondlinger, M. J. (2007). About serious games. Journal of Applied Educational Technology, 4(1). Retrieved January 17, 2011 from http://www.abfirstresponse.co.uk/Aybee/serious%20games.html
Donovan, M. S., Bransford, J. D., & Pellegrino, J. W. (Eds.). (1999). How people learn: Bridging research and practice. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Doyle, T. (2008). Helping students learn in a learner centered environment: A guide to teaching in higher education. Sterling, Virginia: Stylus.
Duclukovic, N. M., & Wagner, A. D. (2006). Attending to remember and remembering to attend. Neuron, 49, 784-787.
Duncan, N. (2007). Feed-forward: Improving students use of tutor comments. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 32(3), 271-283.
Dux, P. E., Ivanoff, J., Asplund, C. L. O., & Marois, R. (2006). Isolation of a central bottleneck of information processing with time-resolved fMRI. Neuron, 52(6), 1109-1120.
Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York, New York: Random House.
Dweck, C. S. (2007). Interview in Stanford News. Retrieved March 11, 2011 from http://news.stanford.edu/news/2007/february7/videos/179_flash.html
Dweck, C. S. (2009). Mindset: Powerful insights from interview on the Positive Coaching Alliance website. Retrieved October 28, 2010 from http://www.positivecoach.org/carol-dweck.aspx
Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology. New York, New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.
References

Ebbinghaus, H. (1913). A contribution to experimental psychology. New York, New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.
Edwards, J., & Fraser, K. (1983). Concept maps as reflections of conceptual understanding. Research in Science Education, 13, 19-26.
E-Health MD. (2011). What is AIDS? Retrieved October 15, 2010 from http://ehealthmd.com/library/aidswomen/AID_whatis.html
Eriksson, P., Perfilieva, E., Bjork-Eriksson, T., Alborn, A. M., Nordborg, C., Peterson, D., & Gage, F. H. (1998). Neurogenesis in the adult
human hippocampus. Nature Medicine, 4(11), 1313-1317.
Ewell, P. T. (1997). Organizing for learning: A point of entry. Discussion proceedings at the 1997 AAHE Summer Academy at Snowbird.
National Center for Higher Education Management Systems (NCHEMS).
Examples of Authentic Assessment. Northern Illinois University. Retrieved October 5, 2010 from
jove.geol.niu.edu/faculty/kitts/GEOL401/inquiryassessment401.pp
Farah, M. (2011). Analyzing successful ways to build better brains and improve cognitive performance. Retrieved January 03, 2011 from
http://nextbigfuture.com/2011/01/analyzing-successful-ways-to-build.html
Ferris, S. (2003.) Insufficient memory: Can a pill boost your brains ability to hold information? Newsday.com. Retrieved October 17, 2010
from http://www.cognitiveliberty.org/dll/memory_drugs_newsday.html
Ferry, B., Kervin, L., Carrington, L., & Prcevich, K. (2007). The need for choice and control: Preparing the digital generation to be teachers.
ICT: Providing choices for learners and learning. Proceedings ASCILITE Conference, Singapore. Retrieved October 11, 2010 from
http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/singapore07/procs/ferry.pdf
Ferry, B., Kervin, L., Carrington, L., & Prcevich, K. (2007). The need for choice and control: Preparing the digital generation to be teachers.
ICT: Providing choices for learners and learning. Proceedings ASCILITE Conference, Singapore. Retrieved January 12, 2011 from
http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/singapore07/procs/ferry.pdf
Foerde, K., Knowlton, B. J., & Poldrack, R. A. (2006). Modulation of competing memory systems by distraction. Retrieved September 11,
2010 from http://www.pnas.org/content/103/31/11778.abstract
Foerde, K., Knowlton, B. J., & Poldrack, R. A. (2006.) Modulation of competing memory systems by distraction. Retrieved January 12, 2011
from http://www.poldracklab.org/Publications/pdfs/Proc%20Natl%20Acad%20Sci%20USA%202006%20Foerde-1.pdf
Frank, L. M., Karlsson, M. P. (2009). Awake replay of remote experiences in the hippocampus. Nature Neuroscience, 12(7), 913-8.
Franklin Institute. (2004). Early movement in animals. Retrieved February, 2011 from http://www.fi.edu/learn/brain/exercise.html
Functions of the Human Brain in Johnson, S. and Taylor, K. (eds.) The Neuroscience of Adult Learning, 53-62. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Gage, F. H., Small, S. A., Pereira, A. C., Huddleston, D.E., Brickman, A. M., Sosunov, A. A., . . . Brown, T. R. (2007). An in vivo correlate of
exercise-induced neurogenesis in the adult dentate gyrus. Proceedings of the National Academy of the Sciences of the United States of
America, 104(13), 5638-43.
Gardiner, L. F. (1994). Redesigning higher education: Producing dramatic gains in student learning. Report No. 7. Washington, D.C.
Gee, J. (2003). What videogames have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York, New York and Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave
MacMillan.

Genetics Science Learning Center. University of Utah. (2010). Retrieved January 7, 2011 from http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/
Glasser, C. (1998). The quality world series. Chatsworth, California: The William Glasser Institute.
Gould, E. (2008). In John J. Ratey, MD, Spark: The revolutionary new science of exercise and the brain. New York, New York: Little Brown.
Grabulosa, J., Serra, M., Adan, A., Falcn, C., & Bargall, N. (2010). Glucose and caffeine effects on sustained attention: An exploratory fMRI study. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental. doi:10.1002/hup.1150.
Grasha, A. (1996). Teaching with style. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
References
Hart, P. (2006). How should colleges prepare students to succeed in todays global economy? Retrieved April 24, 2010, from http://www.aacu.org/advocacy/leap/documents/Re8097abcombined.pdf
Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77, 81-112.
Herrington, J., Oliver, R., & Reeves, T. C. (2003). Patterns of engagement in authentic online learning environments. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 19(1), 5971. Retrieved April 24, 2010, from
http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet19/herrington.html
Heuer, F., & Reisberg, D. (1990). Vivid memories of emotional events: The accuracy of remembered minutiae. Memory & Cognition, 18, 49650.
Hillman, C. H., Castelli, D. M., Buck, S. M., & Erwin, H. (2007). Physical fitness and academic achievement in 3rd & 5th Grade Students. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 29, 239-252.
Hillman, C. H., Pontifex, M. B., Raine, L. B., Castelli, D. M., Hall, E. E., & Kramer, A. F. (2009). The effect of acute treadmill walking on cognitive control and academic achievement in preadolescent children. Neuroscience,
31; 159(3), 1044-54.
Hillman, C. H., & Castelli D. M. (2007). Physical education performance outcome and cognitive function. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 19, 249-277.
Hillman, C. H., Erickson, K., & Kramer, A. F. (2008). Be smart, exercise your heart: Exercise effects on brain and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9, 58-65. doi:10.1038/nrn2298.
Hillman, C., & Castelli, D. M. (2007). Physically fit children appear to do better in classroom. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 64, 178-188.
Hillman, C., Motl, R. W., Pontifex, M. B., Iversiteit, V., Boomsma,D., De Geus, E. J. C., Posthuma, D., & Stubbe, J. (2006). Exercise appears to improve brain function among younger people. Science Daily. Retrieved March
13, 2011, from http://www.sciencedaily.com /releases/2006/12/061219122200.htm
Institute of Education Sciences. (2007). Organizing instruction and study to improve student learning. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Research.
Isaac, J. T., Buchanan, K. A., Muller, R. U., & Mellor, J. R. (2009). Hippocampal place cell firing patterns can induce long-term synaptic plasticity in vitro. Journal of Neuroscience, May 27; 29(21), 6840-50.
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Jha, A. (2011). Meditation improves brain anatomy and function. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging on Science Direct, 191(1), 1-86. Retrieved January 30, 2011 from www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/09254927
Jukes, I., & Dosa, A. J. (2003). The InfoSavvy Group, as quoted on www.apple.com. Retrieved November 15, 2010 from /au/education/digitalkids/disconnect/landscape.html
Kempton KJ, et al. Dehydration affects brain structure and function in healthy adolescents. Human Brain Mapping 24 March 2010
Kaner, S., Lind, L., Toldi, C., Fisk, S., & Berger, D. (2007). Facilitator's guide to participatory decision-making. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass.
Karp, D. A., & Yoels, W. C. (1976). The college classroom: Some observation on the meaning of student participation. Sociology and Social Research, 60, 421-39.
Kensinger, E. A. (2004). Remembering emotional experiences: The contribution of valence and arousal. Reviews in the Neurosciences, 15, 241-251.
References
Kerr, N.L. (1989). Illusions of efficacy: The effects of group size on perceived efficacy in social dilemmas. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 25, 287-313.
Khatri, P., Blumenthal, J. A., Babyak, M. A., Craighead, W. E., Herman, S., Baldewicz, T., Madden, D. J., . . . Krishnan, K. R. (2001). Effects of exercise training on cognitive functioning among depressed older men and women. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 9, 43-57.
Kilbourne, J. (2009). Sharpening the mind through movement: Using exercise balls as chairs in a university class. Retrieved October 12, 2010 from www.balldynamics.com/research/a1237990661.pdf
Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75-86.
Klopfer, E. (2008). Augmented learning research and design of mobile educational games. London, England: The MIT Press Cambridge.
Kohn, A. (1993).Punished by rewards: The trouble with gold stars, incentive plans, A's, praise, and other bribes. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin.
Kolb, D. A., & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning in C. Cooper (ed.). Theories of Group Process. London, England: John Wiley.
Krakovsky, M. ( 2007). The effort effect. Stanford Magazine, March/April, (Quote by Dweck came from this article). Retrieved September 14, 2010 from http://www.stanfordalumni.org/news/magazine/2007/marapr/features/dweck.html
Kramer, A. F., Hahn, S., Cohen, N. J., Banich, M. T., McAuley, E., Harrison, C. R., . . . Colcombe, A. (1999). Ageing, fitness and neurocognitive function. Nature, 400, 418419.
Kramer, A. F., Voss, M. W., Ericjson, K. I., Prakash, R. S., Chaddock, L., Malkowski, E., . . . McAuley, E.. (2010). Functional connectivity: A source of variance in the association between cardiorespiratory fitness and cognition? Neuropsychologia, 48, 13943-1406.
LaBar, K. S., & Phelps, E. A. (1998). Arousal-mediated memory consolidation: Role of the medial temporal lobe in humans. Psychological Science, 9, 490-493.
Larson, B. E. (2000).

Classroom discussion: A method of instruction and a curriculum outcome. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16(5-6), 661-677.
Latane, B., Williams, K., & Harkins, S. (1979). Many hands make light the work: The causes and consequences of social loafing. Journal of Personal Sociology and Psychology, 37, 822-832.
Lave, J. (1988). Cognition in practice: Mind, mathematics, and culture in everyday life. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cambridge University Press.
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cambridge University Press.
Lepper, M. R., Woolverton, M., Mumme, D. L., & Gurtner, J. L. (1993). Motivational techniques of expert human tutors: Lessons for the design of computer-based tutors. In S. P. Lajoie & S. J. Derry (Eds.), Computers as Cognitive Tools, 75105. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum.
Lesh, R. (1998). The development of representational abilities in middle school mathematics: The development of student's representations during model eliciting activities. In I.E. Sigel (Ed.), Representations and Student Learning. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Lesh, R., Hoover, M., Hole, B., Kelly, A., & Post, T. (2000). Principles for developing thought-revealing activities for students and teachers. In A. Kelly & R. Lesh (Eds.), Handbook of Research Design in Mathematics and Science Education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Levy, F., & Murnane, R. (2005). The new division of labor: How computers are creating the next job market. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Loftus, E. (2010). Explanations for forgetting: Reasons why we forget. In about.com Psychology. Retrieved December 13, 2010 from http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/tp/explanations-for-forgetting.htm

References
Lombardi, M. M. (2007). Authentic learning for the 21st century: An overview. ELI Paper 1. Retrieved November 5, 2010 from http://www.educause.edu/ELI/AuthenticLearningforthe21stCen/156769
Lowinson, J., Ruiz, P., Millman, R., & Langrod, J. (1997). Substance abuse: A comprehensive textbook (3
rd
ed.). Baltimore, Maryland: Williams & Wilkens.
Lowman, J. (1995). Mastering the techniques of teaching (2
nd
ed.). San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass.
Lwin, M. O., Morrin, W., & Krishna, A. (2010). Exploring the superadditive effects of scent and pictures on verbal recall: An extension of dual coding theory. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 20, 317326.
MacKay, W. A. (2010). Neuro 101, neurophysiology without tears (6
th
ed.). Toronto, Ontario: Sefalotek.
Marra, T. (2010). Authentic learning environments. Retrieved November 10, 2010 from
?
Mattson, M. P., Duan, W., Wan, R., & Guo, Z. (2004). Prophylactic activation of neuroprotective
stress response pathways by dietary and behavioral manipulations. NeuroRx, 111-116, online.
Mayer, R. E., & Anderson, R. B. (1991). Animations need narrations: An experimental test of a dual-coding hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 484-490.
Mayer, R. E., & Anderson, R. B. (1992). The instructive animation: Helping students build connections between words and pictures in multimedia learning. Journal of Educational 84(4), 444-452.
Mayer, R. E., & Gallini, J. K. (1990). When is an illustration worth ten thousand words? Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 715-726.
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2001). A split-attention effect in multimedia learning: Evidence for dual information processing systems in working memory. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 000-000.
Mayer, R. E., & Sims, V. K. (1994). For whom is a picture worth a thousand words? Extensions of a dual-coding theory of multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 389-401.
Mayer, R. E. (1989). Systematic thinking fostered by illustrations in scientific text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 240-246.
Mayer, R. E. (2004). Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning? The case for guided methods of instruction. American Psychologist, 59(1), 14-19.
Mayer, R. E. (2009). Multimedia learning (2
nd
ed.). New York, New York: Cambridge University Press.
Mayer, R. E., Steinhoff, K., Bower, G., & Mars, R. (1995). A generative theory of textbook design: Using annotated illustrations to foster meaningful learning of science text. Educational Technology Research and Development, 43, 31-44.
McAleese, R. R. (1994). A theoretical view on concept mapping. ALT, 2(2), 38-48.

McCabe, S. E., Knight, J. R., Teter, C. J., & Wechsler, H. (2005). Nonmedical use of prescription stimulants among U.S. college students: Prevalence and correlates from a national survey. Addiction, 99, 96106.
McDaniel, M. A., Roediger, H. L. III, & McDermo, K. B. (2007). Generalizing test-enhanced learning from the laboratory to the classroom. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14, 200-206.
McFarlene, A., Sparrowhawk, A., & Heald, Y. (2002). Report on the educational use of games. Technical Report, TEEM. Retrieved October 19, 2010 from www.teem.org.uk/publications/teem_gamesined_full.pdf

References
McKeachie, W. (1994). Teaching tips: Strategies, research, and theory for college and university teachers (9
th
ed.). Lexington, Massachusetts: DC Heath.
McKeachie, W. J. (1978). Teaching tips: A guidebook for the beginning college teacher, (7
th
ed.). Lexington, Massachusetts: Heath.
McKenzie, J. (1999). Scaffolding for success. From now on: The Educational Journal, (9), 4. Retrieved November 1, 2010, from http://www.fno.org/dec99/scaffold.html
McKone, E. (1998). The decay of short-term implicit memory: Unpacking lag. Memory and Cognition, 26(6), 117386.
Medina, J. (2008). Brain rules. Seattle, Washington: Pear Press.
Mevarech, Z. R., & Kramarski, B. (2003). The effects of metacognitive training versus worked-out examples on students' mathematical reasoning. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 449-471.
Michigan State University Career Services Network. 12 Essentials for success. Retrieved October 12, 2010 from http://careernetwork.msu.edu/pdf/Competencies.pdf
Microsoft Training. (2010). How a good smell can induce a better learning environment with PowerPoint. Retrieved September 12, 2010 from http://www.microsofttraining.net/article-924-how-good-smell-can-induce-better-learning-environment-with-powerpoint.html
Middendorf, J., & Kalish, A. (1996). The "Change-Up" in lectures. Teaching Resources Center, Indiana University. Retrieved March 1, 2011 from http://www.ntlf.com/html/pi/9601/article1.htm
Mintzes, J. J., Wandersee, J. H., & Novak, J. D. (2000). Assessing science understanding: A human constructivist view. San Diego: Academic Press.
Modie, J. (2003). 'Good' chemical: Neurons in brain elevated among exercise addicts. Oregon Health & Science University (September 29). ScienceDaily. Retrieved March 13, 2011, from http://www.sciencedaily.com /releases/2003/09/030929053719.htm
Mohs, R. C. (2010). How human memory works. Retrieved January 11, 2011 from
http://health.howstuffworks.com/human-body/systems/nervous-system/human-memory4.htm
Muller, J. Authentic tool box. Retrieved January 15, 2011 from http://jfmueller.faculty.noctrl.edu/toolbox
Najjar, L. J. (1998). Principles of educational multimedia user interface design. Human Factors, 40(2): 311 323
National Library of Medicine. Visible human project. Retrieved December 12, 2010 from
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/research/visible/visible_human.html
Nellis, B. (2006). Mayo clinic obesity researchers test classroom of the future. Pediatrics/Children's Health, Retrieved October 15, 2010 from
http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/39630.php
New Horizons for Learning. Johns Hopkins University School of Education, Definition of Authentic Learning. Retrieved February 14, 2011
http://education.jhu.edu/newhorizons/strategies/topics/index.html
Newell, F., Bulthoff, H. H., & Ernst, M. (2003). Cross-modal perception of actively explored objects. Proceedings EuroHaptics, 291 299.
Nicol, D., & Draper, S. (2008). Redesigning written feedback to students when class sizes are large. Paper presented at the Improving
University Teachers Conference, July, Glasgow.
Nidich, S. I., Fields, J. Z., Rainforth, M. V., Pomerantz, R., Cella, D., Kristeller J., . . . Schneider, R.H. (2009). A Randomized controlled trial of
the effects of transcendental meditation on quality of life in older breast cancer patients. Integrative Cancer Therapies, 8(3), 228-234.
Nilson, L. (1996). Leading effective discussions. Teaching at its best, 69-76. Nashville, Tennessee: Vanderbilt University.

References
North Central Regional Education Laboratory. (2011). Traits of Authentic Education. Retrieved October 14, 2010 from www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/content/cntareas/science/sc500.htm
Novak, J. D. (1990). Concept maps and vee diagrams: Two metacognitive tools for science and mathematics education. Instructional Science, 19, 29-52.
Novak, J. D., & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press.
Novak, J. D., & Caas, A. J. (2006). The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and use them. Retrieved Dec 7, 2010 from http://cmap.ihmc.us/Publications/ResearchPapers/TheoryCmaps/TheoryUnderlyingConceptMaps.htm
Oberlander, E. M., Oswald, F. L., Hambrick, D. Z., & Jones, L. A. (2007). Individual differences as predictors of error during multitasking. Technical Report for Navy Personnel Research, Studies, and Technology (NPRST-TN-07-9). Millington,
Tennessee.
Ochsner, K. N. (2000). Are affective events richly recollected or simply familiar? The experience and process of recognizing feelings past. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 129, 242-261. emotional valence
Orts, E. W. (2010). Tragedy of the Tuna, Retrieved December 12, 2010 from http://www.wharton.upenn.edu/learning/tragedy-of-the-tuna.cfm
Overbaugh, R. C., & Schultz, L. Examples of Blooms taxonomy. Retrieved November 17, 2010 from http://www.odu.edu/educ/roverbau/Bloom/blooms_taxonomy.htm
Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations: A dual coding approach. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Pashler, H., Cepeda, N., Wixted, J., & Rohrer, D. (2005). When does feedback facilitate learning of words? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31, 3-8.
Pashler, H., Rohrer, D., Cepeda, N. J., & Carpenter, S. K. (2007). Enhancing learning and retarding forgetting: Choices and consequences. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 14, 187-193.
Payne,J, Matthew A. Tucker, Jeffrey M. Ellenbogen, Erin J. Wamsley, Matthew P. Walker, Daniel L. Schacter, Robert Stickgold. Memory for Semantically Related and Unrelated Declarative Information: The Benefit of Sleep, the Cost of Wake.
PLoS ONE, 2012; 7 (3): e33079 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0033079
Perry, D. J. (2002). Unit 5: Cognitive development theories. Retrieved November 16, 2010, from http://www.education.indiana.edu/~p540/webcourse/develop.html
Pert, C. B. (1997). Molecules of emotion: The science behind mind-body medicine. New York, New York: Simon & Schuster.
Piaget, J. (1954). The construction of reality in the child. New York, New York: Basic Books.
Piezon, S. L., & Donaldson, R.L. (2005). Online groups and social loafing: Understanding student-group interactions. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 8(4). Retrieved online July 7, 2010 from
http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/winter84/piezon84.htm
Polaris: An online portfolio system for undergraduate engineering students at the University of Texas at Austin, innovations and implementations. (2006). Exemplary practices in Teaching and Learning Educause. Retrieved September 2006 from
http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ELI5015.pdf
Prensky, M. (2001). What readers are saying about digital game-based learning. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Price, K. H., & Harrison, D. A. (2006). Withholding inputs in team context: Member composition, interaction process, evaluation structure, and social loafing. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(6). Psychology, 84, 444-452.
Pytel, B. (2007). No more classroom chairs, students are sitting on exercise balls. Suite101.com. Retrieved November 11, 2010 from http://www.balldynamics.com/research/a1235761967.pdf
Rasch, B., Buchel, C., Gais, S., & Born, J. (2007). Odor cues during slow wave sleep prompt declarative memory consolidation. Science 9 March 2007, 1333. doi:10.1126/science.315.5817.1333k.
Ratey, J. (2001). A users guide to the brain. New York, New York. Pantheon Books.
Ratey, J. (2008). Spark: The new science of exercise and the brain. New York, New York: Little Brown.
Rawson, K. (2010). Tests really do improve learning: Study practice tests really do improve learning: Study. The Journal Science Practice. Retrieved November 1, 2010 from http://health.usnews.com/health-news/family-health/brain-and-
behavior/articles/2010/10/14/practice-tests-really-do-improve-learning-study.html
Resnick, L. B. (1987). The 1987 Presidential
References
Ribeiro, S., Gervasoni, D., Soares, E. S., Zhou, Y., Lin, S. C., Pantoja, J., Lavine, M., Nicolelis, M. A. (2004). Long-lasting novelty-induced neuronal reverberation during
slow-wave sleep in multiple forebrain areas. PLoS Biology, 2(1): e24. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020024.
Ribeiro, S. (2004). Sleeper effects: Slumber may fortify memory, stir insight. Science News, 165(4).
Rinck, M. (1999). Memory for everyday objects: Where are the digits on numerical keypads? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 13(4), 329-350.
Robert, B. C. (2000). Patterns, the brain, and learning. The Science of Learning, 4(3).
Roediger, H. L., III, & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). The power of testing memory: Implications for educational practice. Unpublished manuscript, Washington University in
St. Louis.
Rogers, S., Ludington, J., & Graham, S. (1998). Motivation and Learning. Evergreen, Colorado: Peak Learning Systems.
Rogers, S., Renard, L. (1999). Relationship-driven teaching. Educational Leadership. September, 34-37.
Ruggerio, V. (1995). Oral presentation on Thinking Critically, given at Ferris State University, March, 1995.
Rule, A. C. (2006). Editorial: The components of authentic learning. Journal of Authentic Learning, 3(1), 1-10.
Sahakian, B., & Morein-Zamir, S. (2007). Professors little helper. Nature, 450, 1157-1159. Retrieved December 7, 2010 from
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v450/n7173/full/4501157a.html
San Francisco Edit. (2010). Research related questions. Retrieved October 11, 2010 http://www.sfedit.net/index.html
Schacter, D. L., & Dodson, C. S. (2001). Misattribution, false recognition and the sins of memory. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B:
Biological Sciences, September 29; 356(1413), 13851393. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2001.0938.
Schacter, D. (2001). Seven sins of memory how the mind forgets. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin.
Schwarz, R. (2002). The skilled facilitator: A comprehensive resource for consultants, facilitators, managers, trainers, and coaches. San Francisco, California: Jossey-
Bass.
Seitz, A. R., Kim, R., & Shams, L. (2006). Sound facilitates visual learning. Current Biology, 16(14) 1422-1427.
Shams, L., & Seitz, A. (2008). Benefits of multisensory learning. Trends in Cognitive Science, 12(11), 411-417.
Shankardass, A. (2009). A second opinion on learning disorders (TED). Retrieved September 9, 2010 from
http://www.ted.com/talks/aditi_shankardass_a_second_opinion_on_learning_disorders.html
Simon, P. (1966). I am a Rock, I am an Island [Simon & Garfunkel]. Simon & Garfunkel Collected Works, [LP]. New York, New York: Columbia Records. (1981).
Smagorinsky, P. (2007). Vygotsky and the social dynamic of classrooms. English Journal, 97(2), 61-66.
Smallwood, J., & Schooler, J. (2006). The restless mind. Psychological Bulletin, 132(6), 946958.
Smith, C. N., & Squire, L. R. (2009). Medial temporal lobe activity during retrieval of semantic memory is related to the age of the memory. The Journal of
Neuroscience, Jan 28, 29(4), 930-938. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4545-08.
Smith, F. (1985). Reading without nonsense. New York, New York: Teacher College Press.
Smith, M. K. (2001, 2009). Facilitating learning and change in groups. The Encyclopedia of Informal Education. Retrieved October 17, 2010 from
http://www.infed.org/encyclopedia.htm
Snyder, P. (2010). Can you build a better brain? Newsweek. Retrieved October 25, 2010 from http://www.newsweek.com/2011/01/03/can-you-build-a-better-
brain.html
References
Soanes, C., Stevenson, A., & Hawker, S. (2006). Concise Oxford English dictionary (computer software) (11
th
ed.). Oxford University Press. Entry mnemonic.
Spiller, D. (2009). Assessment: Feedback to promote student learning. Retrieved Nov 1, 2010 from http://www.docstoc.com/docs/24436889/Assessment-Feedback-to-promote-student-learning
Stark, L. A. (2010). The new science of addiction. Genetics Science Learning Center, University of Utah. Retrieved October 4, 2010 from http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/units/addition/index.cfm
Stenberg, G. (2006). Conceptual and perceptual factors in the picture superiority effect. The European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 18(6), 813-847(35).
Stern, Y. (2006). The concept of cognitive reserve: A catalyst for research. In Stern, Y. (Ed), Cognitive Reserve: Theory and Applications, 1-4, 44.
Stern, P., (2010) Can you build a better brain? In Newsweek, Retrieved October 25, 2010 from http://www.newsweek.com/2011/01/03/can-you-build-a-better-brain.html
Sweller, J., Krischner, P. A., & Clark, R. E. (2007). Why minimally guided teaching techniques do not work: A reply to commentaries. Educational Psychologist, 42(2), 115-121.
Swing, E. L., Gentile, D. A., Anderson, C. A., & Walsh, D. A. (2010). Television and video game exposure and the development of attention problems. Pediatrics. doi: 10.1542/peds.2009-1508.
Sylwester, R. (1995). A celebration of neurons: An educators guide to the human brain. Alexandria, Virginia: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Kuhn, T. S. (1962). The structure of scientific revolutions (1
st
ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
Tambini, A., Ketz, N., & Davachi, L. (2010). Enhanced brain correlations during rest are related to memory for recent experiences. Neuron, Jan., 280-290.
Taras, M. (2003). To feedback or not to feedback in student self-assessment. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 28(5), 549-565.
Taylor, D. (2009). Modern myths of learning: The creative right brain. Training Zone. Retrieved Feb 19, 2011 from http://donaldhtaylor.wordpress.com/writing/modern-myths-of-learning-the-creative-right-brain/
Thompson, C. J. (2009).Educational Statistics Authentic Learning CAPSULES: Community action projects for students utilizing leadership and e-based statistics. Journal of Statistics Education, 17(1).
Thompson, D. (2006). Summit on educational games: Harnessing the power of video games for learning. Washington, D.C.: Federation of American Scientist. Retrieved December 7, 2010 from http://www.adobe.com/resources/elearning/pdfs/serious_games_wp.pdf
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2008). Number of jobs, labor market experience, and earnings growth: Results from a national longitudinal survey news release, June 2008. Retrieved November 18, 2010 from http://www.bls.gov/news.release/archives/nlsoy_06272008.htm
U.S. Department of Education. (2001). The national commission of the high school senior year. U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved November 16, 2010 from http://www.ecs.org/html/Document.asp?chouseid=2929
U.S. Department of Education. (2001). The national commission of the high school senior year. U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved January 12, 2010 from http://www.ecs.org/html/Document.asp?chouseid=2929
UNC Center for Teaching and Learning. (1992). The guided discussion: Ground rules for in-class small group discussion, for your consideration Suggestions and reflections on teaching and learning, CTL Number 12. Retrieved February 19, 2011 from
http://cfe.unc.edu/pdfs/FYC12.pdf

References
Underwood, B. J., & Postman, L. (1960). Extra-experimental sources of interference in forgetting. Psychological Review, 67, 73-95.
Voss, J., Gonsalves, B., Federmeier, K., Tranel, D., & Cohen, Neal. (2010). Hippocampal brain-network coordination during volitional exploratory behavior enhances learning.
Nature Neuroscience. doi: 10.1038/nn.2693.
Wagner, U., Gais, S., Haider, H., Verleger, R., & Born, J. (2004). Sleep inspires insight. Nature, 427, 352-355.
Weimer, M. (2002). Learner-centered teaching. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass.
Weuve, J., Kang, J., Manson, J., Breteler, M., Ware, J., & Grodstein, F. (2008). Physical activity, including walking, and cognitive function in older women. Retrieved January 23,
2011 from http://jama.ama-assn.org/content/292/12/1454.abstract
Whitebread, D. (1997). Developing children's problem-solving: The educational uses of adventure games', in McFarlane, A. (ed). Information Technology and Authentic Learning.
London, England: Routledge.
Wiggins, G. (1990). The case for authentic assessment. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 2(2). Retrieved March 8, 2011 from http://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp?v=2&n=
Wiggins, G. Assessment as Feedback. New Horizons for Learning: Johns Hopkins University School of Education. Retrieved February14, 2011
http://education.jhu.edu/newhorizons/strategies/topics/Assessment%20Alternatives/wiggins.htm
Williams, M. (2005). A technology-based model for learning. Journal on Systemics, Cybernetics, and Informatics, 2(6).
Ying, Z., Vaynman, S., & Gomez-Pinilla, F. (2004). Exercise induces BDNF and synapses to specific hippocampal subfields. Journal of Neuroscientific Research, 76(3), 356-62.
Zadina, Janet. (2010). Neuroscience and learning. Oral presentation at San Jacinto Community College, Houston, Texas.
Zins, J. E., Weissberg, R. P., Wang, M. C., & Walberg, H. J. (2004). Building academic success on social and emotional learning: what does the research say? New York, New York:
Teachers College Press.
Zull, J. (2002).The art of changing the brain. Sterling, Virginia: Stylus
Baker, C. (2001). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. Clevedon [England]: Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Horgan, J. (2009). The myth of mind control. Discover Presents the Brain, William C. Hostetter, NY.
Koenig, O., Reiss, L. P., & Kosslyn, S. M. (1990). The development of spatial relation representations: Evidence from studies of cerebral lateralization.
Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 50, 119-130.
Lindsay, D., Hagan, L., Read, J., Wade, K., & Garry, M. (2004). True photographs and false memories. Psychological Science, 15, 149-154.
Marian, V., Spivey, M., & Hirsch, J. (2003). Shared and separate systems in bilingual language processing: Converging evidence from eyetracking and
brain imaging. Brain and Language, 86, 70-82.
Brain Energy Metabolism An Integrated Cellular Perspective
Pierre J. Magistretti, Luc Pellerin, and Jean-Luc Martin
http://www.acnp.org/g4/gn401000064/ch064.html
Water enhances mental function and is essential to survival
Published on October 15, 2010 by Joshua Gowin, Ph.D. in You, Illuminated
http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/you-illuminated/201010/why-your-brain-needs-water
Feeding the Brain for Academic Success: How Nutrition and Hydration Boost Learning Philippa Norman MD,
MPHhttp://www.healthybrainforlife.com/articles/school-health-and-nutrition/feeding-the-brain-for-academic-success-how
The Handbook of Brain Theory and Neural Networks: Second Edition
By Michael A. Arbib 2003

Caffeine and Depression
The analysis showed that the risk of suicide among adults drinking 2-4 cups of coffee (the
equivalent of about 400 mg of caffeine) a day was 50% less than the risk for adults who
drank decaffeinated coffee or one cup or less of caffeinated coffee. Drinking more than 4
cups of coffee wasnt associated with lower suicide risk.
The neurochemistry behind the finding makes sense. As discussed in a previous article,
caffeine acts as an expert mimic of a chemical called adenosine in the brain and other
parts of the body. Adenosine is a sort of checks-and-balances chemical produced by
neurons as they fire throughout the day; the more adenosine is produced, the more the
nervous system ratchets down activity, until we eventually fall asleep and reboot the
process.
By mimicking adenosine, caffeine blocks receptors in the nervous system from receiving
the signals to decrease energy expenditure. When that happens, levels of the brains
homegrown neuro-stimulantsdopamine and glutamateincrease, and we experience
the brain stimulating effects associated with drinking a big cup of java. Those effects may
be a potent counterbalance to depression for a segment of the coffee-drinking
population.

Do you ever complain that your students cant think critically? Some
recent research indicates that frontal lobes dont fully develop until
around ages 18-25. Just like other brain processes, however,
experience is necessary to develop this region. Instead of expecting
your students to just have this ability, help them develop it through
scaffolding and explicit instruction. Also keep in mind that many of
the activities we give students are actually activities involving working
memory (what can be held online for a short period of time). If
students fail to comprehend lengthy directions or long sentences or
passages, it may not be a reading or language comprehension
problem, but a working memory problem. Shorter sentences can be
helpful.
Next is the Language pathway. Of course
we are using it in our language
classrooms! Neuroscientists are
convinced that the earlier a second
language is learned in school the better,
and express concern that the field of
education has not changed significantly in
response to this information. We know
that becoming fluent enough in a second
language to perform academic tasks in
that language actually enhances ones
overall thinking, with improved cognition
in classification skills, concept formation,
analogical reasoning, visual-spatial skills,
and creativity (Baker, 2001).

The End

The New Science of Learning UofM Flint Presentation

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The New Science of Learning UofM Flint Presentation

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

The New Science of Learning UofM Flint Presentation

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A New Paradigm for Student Learning

Developed by Professor Terry Doyle

You might also like

Pfad - The Proxy pFad of © 2024 Garber Painting. All rights reserved.