.

Unit 2: The Musculo-skeletal

system:

. Develoment of bones.
. Classification of bones.
. Macroscopic and microscopic
structure
of bones.
. Name of main bones.
. Function of bones, ligaments,
cartilages and tendons.
. Classification of joints.
. Synovial joint. 1
 . Lecture: 8 Hours.

. Prepared By:
David Quek Sim Kee PKL. B.Sc
(Hons).

2
 . Unit 2: Musculoskeletal System:

. Specific Objectives:
At the end of this session, the
students
should be able to:

1. state the classification of

bones.
2. draw and label macroscopic and
microscopic structure of bone.
3
 3. explain the development of
bones.
4. explain the functions of bones,
ligaments, cartilage and
tendons.
5. state the name of the main
bones.
6. describe the structure and
movement
of joints.
7. draw and label synovial joint. 4
. Bones:

5
 . Bones:

. Strong, durable and hardest

type of
connective tissue.
. Consists of:
. Water (25%).
. Organic material (25%).
- bone cells, osteod (the
carbon
containing the matrix).
. Inorganic material (50%) 6
 Components of the skeletal system:

. Consists of:
. The bones.
. The cartilages.
. The tendons.
. Accounts for 20% of the body
weight.
. Forms the framework of the
body.
7
 1. Classification of bones:

. Classified into five main types

according to its size and
shapes:

a. Long bones:
b. Short bones
c. Irregular bones
d. Flat bones .
e. Sesamoid bones

8
1. Classification of bones:

9
 2a. Macroscopic structure of bone
tissue:

a. Long bones:
. Long.
. Primarily made up of compact
bones.
. Have large spongy bone at the
ends.
. Have long shaft with two
expanded
extremities.
eg: Femur, tibia, fibula. 10
a. Long bones:

11
 . Consist of a shaft and two
expanded ends.
. Length is greater than the
width.
. Usually curved for strength.
. Eg: femur, tibia and fibula.
Humerus, ulna and radius.

12
. The diaphysis:

. Bone’s body or shaft.

. Long cyclindrical
main portion.
. Composed thick
compact bone.
. Surround a hollow
central
medullary canal.
- containing fatty
yellow bone marrow in adults. 13
 . Surface of medullary canal is lined
with a thin connective tissue
membrane called endosteum
containg
osteoclasts (break down bones).

14
. The epiphyses:

. Distal and proximal

ends of bone.
. Consists of
spongy bone
cover by thin
layer of
compact bone
outside. 15
 . Articular surface of epiphysis is
covered
by hyaline cartilage which replaces
periosteum to form synovial joints.
. Growing bones, there is an
epiphyseal
plate of hyaline separating
diaphysis
and epiphysis.
. Plate replace epiphyseal line when
16

growth cease.
 . The periosteum:

. Tough, white fibrous connective

tissue
covers the outer surface of long
bone.
. Consists of two layers:
. Fibrous (outer layer).
. Osteogenic (inner layer)
- consists of osteoclasts
(bone 17
A mature long bone 18
19
 . Structure of short, irregular, flat
and
sesamoid bones:
. No diaphysis or epiphysis.
. Diverse in shape and size.
. Have a thin outer layer of
compact bone.
. Inside have cancellous bone
containing red bone marrow.
. Enclosed by periosteum except
the 20
 b. Short bones eg: carpals (wrist)
tarsals (ankle).
c. Irregular bones eg: vertebrae
skull
bones.
d. Flat bones eg: cranial, sternum
and ribs.
e. Sesamoid bones eg: patella
(knee
cap)palms
and
soles.
21
Section of flat and irregular bones. 22
 2b. Microscopic structure of bone
tissue:

2 types of bone tissue:

a. Compact bone tissue.
b. Spongy (cancellous) bone
tissue.

23
 Microscopic structure of bone
tissue:
. Compact and spongy bone:

24
a. Compact bone tissue:

25
 a. Compact bone tissue:

. Contain few spaces.

. Forms the external layer of all
bones
and bulk of the shaft of long
bone.
. Provides protection and
support
long bone resist stress by the
weight
of body.
. Consists of closely packed 26
 . Haversian system:

. Consist of haversian canal.

. Runs blood, nerve and
lymphatic
vessels.
. Surrounded by bone plates or
lamellae.
. Between lamellae are lacunae
(small cavities) which
contains
osteocytes (bone cells). 27
. Lacunae joint each other by
. Haversian system:

28
. Haversian system:

29
 b. Spongy bone tissue:

. Lighter and less dense.

. Found mainly in:
. short, flat and irregular
shaped
bones.
. epiphysis of long bone.
. Does not contain true osteons.
. Consists numerous thin bone
column called trabeculae, rich
in red 30
bone marrow.
. LETS BREAK

31
 . RECAP –
QUESTION & ANSWER:

32
 3. Development of bone tissue:
(Osteogenesis or ossification)

. Process of bone development

is
called ossification or
osteogenesis.
. Process begins before birth.
. Complete about 21 years of
life.
. Osteogenesis involves 3 types
of
bone cells involve in the
33
development, growth and
 . Bone cells:

. Three types:
a. Osteoblasts.
. Primary bone forming cell
later
develop into osteocyte.
b. Osteoclast.
c. Osteocytes (mature bone
cells).
34
 a. Osteoblast:
. Bone forming cells.
. Originate from fibrous tissue
cell.
. Can be found:
. Under periosteum layer.
. Center of ossification of
immature
bone.
. End of diaphysis.
. Site of fracture. 35
 . Function:
. Produce bone matrix.
Later calcified and become
bone
tissue.
. As bone develops osteoblast
are
trapped in lacunae.

36
 b. Osteoclast:
. Break down and resorp
(repair)
bones to maintain optimun
shape.
. Takes place at bone surfaces.

c. Osteocytes(mature bone cells):

. Mature bone cells.
. Osteoblast migrate to matrix,
get
trapped and remain in 37
 . Two types of bone tissue
development:

a. Intramembranous Ossification:

. Occur in Flat bones of the

skull
and some irregular bones.
. Replacement of sheetlike
connective tissue
membranes 38
 . Bones formed from connective
tissue
membrane are intramembranous
bone.
. Osteoblast migrate to membrane
and deposit bone matrix.
. Calcification hardened bone
matrix
and develop into bone tissue.
. Osteoblast get trapped in the
lacunae 39
 b. Endochondral Ossification:
. Endo means inside.
. Chondral means cartilage.
. Formation of bone tissue
from
cartilage.
. Involves replacement of
hyaline
cartilage with bone tissue.
. All skeletal bones except flat
and
sesamoid bones develop from 40
. Bone growth:

. Grow in length at the epiphyseal

plate.
. Cartilage in the epiphyseal plate
grow
by mitosis.
. Osteoblasts move in and ossify
matrix
to form bone.
. Process continues throughout
41
childhood and adolescence.
 . Cartilage growth stops usually in
the
early 20’s.
. Epiphyseal plate completely
ossifies, a
thin epiphyseal line remains and
the
bone can no longer grow in
length.

42
43
. Bone increase in length or diameter:

. Bone can still continue to increase in

thicknesss or diameter throughout
life.
. Increase in diameter is called
appositional growth.
. Osteoblast and osteoclast increase the
diameter of bone.

44
 4. Functions of bone, ligaments,
cartilages and tendons:

i. Support.
. Provides a rigid framework
that
support soft organs.
. Support the body against
the pull
of gravity.
. Large bones of lower limbs
support the trunk when
standing. 45
 ii. Protection.
. Protects many internal organs
from
injury.
. Fused bones of the cranium
surround
the brain make it less
vulnerable to
injury.
. Vertebrae surround and protect
the
spinal cord.
. Rib cage protect the heart and
46
 iii . Movements.
. Provide sites for muscle
attachment.
. Bones and muscle work
together
as mechanical lever systems to
produce body movement.
. Lever system has 4
components:
a. Rigid bars - bones.
b. Pivots or fulcrum - joints
between the bones.
c. Object or Weight that is 47
 iv. Storage of minerals.

. Intercellular matrix of bone

contains large amounts of
calcium
and phosphorus.
. On demand, bone releases
minerals
into the blood to maintain
mineral
balances (homeostasis) and48 to
 vi. Storage of chemical energy:

. Triglycerides stored in the

adipose
cells of yellow bone marrow are
an
important chemical energy
reserve.

49
 v. Blood cells formation:

. Blood cell formation called

hematopoiesis takes place in
red
bone marrow.
. Produces RBC, WBC and
platelets.

50
. RECAP

51
. RECAP

. Label the parts .

52
 1. Division of the skeleton:

. Bony framework of the body.

. Adult body consists of 206
named
bones.
. Grouped in 2 division:
. 80 bones in axial skeleton.
. 126 in appendicular skeleton.

53
Division of the skeleton:

54
 5. Bones of the skeleton:

. Bony framework of the body.

. Adult body consists of 206
named
bones.
. Grouped in 2 division:
. 80 bones in axial skeleton.
. 126 in appendicular skeleton.

55
2. Bones of the axial skeleton:

. Contains 80 named bones.

. Divided into:
. the skull.
. Hyoid.
. vertebral column.
. rib cage.

56
. Skull:

. Contains 28 bones.
. Rests on top of the vertebral
column.
. Flat and irregular bones.
. United by interlocking joints
called suture.
. Divided into 2 parts:
i. cranial bones or cranium.
ii. Facial bones.
57
i. Cranial bones or cranium:
. 8 flat and irregular bones
interlocked together.
. Enclose and
protect the brain.
. 2 Parietal.
. 2 Temporal.
. 1 Frontal.
. 1 Occipital.
. 1 Ethnoid.
. 1 Sphenoid.
58
•

59
 . Contain sinuses (air-filled
cavities) to
reduce the weight of skull.
. Numerous foramina (openings) to
allow for passage of blood vessels
and
nerves.

60
. Cranial Bones:
a. 1 Frontal bone:
. Forms anterior
portion of skull:
above the eye
(forehead),
a portion of nose,
and superior portion
of orbit (eye socket).
61
.

62
b. 2 parietal bones:

. Form the side and roof of the

skull.
. Joined:
. to each other in the
midline by sagittal
suture.
. to the frontal bone
by coronal suture.
. with occipital
at the lambdoidal
suture. 63
c. 2 temporal bones:
. Lie one on each side of head.
. Form parts of the
sides and base of
the cranium.
. Form immovable
joints with parietal,
occipital, sphenoid
and zygomatic
bones. 64
d. 1 occipital bone:

. Forms back of the head

and part of the
base of the skull.
. Immovable joints
with parietal and
temporal bones.

65
e. Sphenoid bone 66
e. The sphenoid bone:
. Lies at the middle
part of the base
of the skull.
. Articulates with
temporal, parietal
and frontal bones.
. Shape resembles
a bat with
outstretched wings. 67
f. The ethmoid bone:
. A light, spongy bone.
. Located at the roof of the nose
between the orbits.
. Has 2 projections into the nasal
cavity the upper and middle
conchae.
. Contains many air sinuses
opening into the nasal cavity.
68
 69
The right ethmoid bone
 ii. 14 facial bones:

. Form the framework and

shape of
the face.
. Provide attachments for the
muscle
that control facial expression
and
move the jaw for chewing.
. 13 bones are interlocked
together.
. 1 moveable mandible (lower 70

jawbone).
b. Facial bones - 14 bones:

. 2 Maxilla.
. 2 Zygomatic.
. 1 Mandible.
. 2 Nasal.
. 2 Palatine.
. 2 Lacrimal.
. 1 Vomer.
. 2 Inferior nasal conchia.

71
. Hyoid bone:

. U-shaped bone
lying in the soft
issue of the neck.
. Just above the
larynx and below
the mandible.

72
73
 . Unique, only bone in the body that
does
not articulate directly with
another
bone.
. Gives attachment to the base of
the
tongue.
. Attachment for several muscles
associated with swallowing.
74
. Vertebral column:

. Also called the spine or

backbone.
. Extends from the skull to the
pelvis.
. Composed of 26 irregular bones
called vertebrae.
. Separated by pads of
fibrocartilage
called intervertebral disks. Acts
as
shock absorbers allow column
to 75
 . 4 curvatures increase the
strength
and resilience to the column.
a. Thoracic curvature.
b. Sacral curvature.
c. Cervical curvature.
d. Lumbar curvature.

76
. Vertebral column - 26 bones:
. Consists of 26 vertebrae.
. 7 Cervical vertebrae.
. 12 Thoracic vertebrae.
. 5 Lumber vertebrae.
. 1 Sacrum.
. 1 Coccyx.

77
The vertebral column 78
 . Cervical vertebrae:
. The atlas:
. The 1st cervical vertebra.
. Carry the weight of the head
and
facilitate its movement.
. Consists of a ring of bone
with 2
short transverse processes.
. Has no body and spinous
process.
. Anterior aspect is a small
facet for 79
articulation with the odontoid
A cervical vertebral 80
Lower cervical vertebrae 81
 . The axis:
. The 2nd vertebra.
. Have a small body and a
spinous
process.
. Characterized by an odontoid
process
(tooth-shaped projection) or
dens
projects upwards in the
anterior
side. 82
 . Thoracic vertebrae:
. Have a heart-shaped body.
. Spinous process is long and
points
downwards.
. On each side of the body there
are 2
costal facets for articulation
with the
ribs.
83
 84
A thoracic vertebra
 . Lumber vertebrae:
. The largest and strongest in the
column.
. Bean-shaped body.
. Spinous process are attached to
the
large back muscles.

85
A lumbar vertebra 86
 . The sacrum:
. Consists of 5 vertebrae fuse to
form a
triangular-shaped bone.
. Upper part articulates with the
5th
lumbar vertebra to form the
lumbosacral angle.
. Inferior tip articulates with the
coccyx.
87
. The sides articulates with the
 . The coccyx:

. Consists of 4 terminal vertebrae

fused
to form a small triangular bone.
. The broad base articulates with
the
tip of the sacrum.

88
 89
Sacrum and Coccyx
. Thoracic Cage - 25 bones:

. 1 Sternum.
. 12 pairs of
ribs.
. 12 thoracic
vertebrae

90
 . The bony thorax:
. The thorax refers to the entire
chest.
. The bones of the thoracic cage
are:
. 1 sternum.
. 12 pairs of ribs.
. 12 thoracic vertebrae.
. The thoracic cage encloses and
protects the organs in the
thoracic
cavity and upper abdominal 91
The thoracic cage 92
 . Sternum or breast bone:
. A flat, narrow bone located in
the
center of the anterior thoracic
wall.
. Consists of three parts:
. The upper part is the
menubrium.
. Articulates with the clavicles
and
the 1st and 2nd ribs. 93
 . Lowest and smallest part at
the tip
is the xiphoid process.
. Articulates with the
diaphragm,
muscles of the anterior
abdominal
wall and the linea alba.

94
 95
The sternum
 . Ribs:

. 12 pairs of ribs form the bony

lateral
walls of the thoracic cage.
. Increase in length from the 1st
through 7th ribs then decrease in
length to the 12th ribs.
. Articulates posteriorly with the
thoracic cage.
96
 . Upper seven pairs of ribs are true
ribs
attach directly to the sternum by
costal
cartilages.
. Lower five pairs attach indirectly
to the
sternum are false ribs. The 8th to
10th
pairs attach to each other and
then to 97
 . The spaces in between the ribs
are
called intercoastal spaces are
occupied
by intercoastal muscles, blood
vessels
and nerves.

98
99
A typical rib 100
. RECAP

101
. Name the cranial bones:

102
. Name the facial bones.

103
Division of the skeleton:

104
 . Bones of the appendicular
skeleton:

. 126 bones.
. The shoulder girdle (pectoral)
consists of:
the upper extremities, anterior
clavicle and posterior scapula.
. The pelvic girdle (Hip) with the
lower
105
limbs and two innominate bones
Division of Structure: Number of
the skeleton: bones:
. Appendicular . Pectoral (shoulder) girdle
skeleton. . Clavical 2
. Scapula 2
. Upper limbs
. Humerus 2
. Ulna 2
. Carpals 16
. Metacarpals 10
. Phalanges 28
. Pelvic (hip) girdle
. Hip, pelvic or coxal bone 2
. Lower limbs
. Femur 2
. Fibula 2
. Tibia

. Patella 2
. Tarsals 14
. Metatarsals 10
106
. Phalanges 28
Bony skeleton: Anterior view. 107
 . Pectoral (shoulder) girdle and
upper
limb:

. Shoulder girdle attach the

bones of
the upper limbs to the axial
skeleton.
. Each shoulder girdle consists
of:
. 1 clavicle. 108
109
 . Clavicle or collar bone:

. A long, slender S-shaped bone.

. Positioned horizontally above
the
first rib.

110
. Medial end articulates with the
the manubrium of the sternum.
. Lateral end articulates with the
acromion process of the scapula.

111
Clavicle 112
. Scapula or shoulder blade:

. A thin, flat,
triangular bone
on the posterior
surface of
thoracic wall.
. Articulates with
clavicle and
humerus.
113
Scapula 114
. Upper extremity:
. Upper extremity (limb) consists of
the bones of the arm, forearm and
hand.
. Each upper limb consists of the
following bones:
. 1 humerus. . 8 carpal bones.
. 1 radius. . 5 metacarpal bones.

. 1 ulna. . 14 phalanges.

115
116
. Humerus or The arm (Brachium):

. Region between
the shoulder and
elbow.
. Contain a
single long bone.
. The head is large
smooth and
rounded end fits
into the scapula. 117
118
Shoulder joint.

119
 . 2 blunt
projections
the greater
and
lesser
tubercles
for muscle
attachment.
. Shallow
groove
between 120
. Deltoid tuberosity
is an elongated
rough area along
the shaft.
. Lateral and medial
epicondyles is
attachment of
forearam muscles.

121
The Humerus 122
123
. The forearm:
. Region between the
elbow and wrist.
. Formed by the radius
on the lateral
side and ulna on
the medial side.

124
. The radius:

. Has a circular
dislike head on
proximal end.
. Articulates with
the capitulum
of humerus
and radial
notch of ulna. 125
. Inferior to the
head a small
rough region the
radial tuberosity
is attachment for
biceps muscle.
. Distal end is the
styloid process.

126
 . The ulna:

. Medial aspect (little finger side)

of
the forearm.
. Longer than the radius.
. Proximal end has a wrenchlike,
the
trochlear notch or semilunar
notch.
. Projection on the upper end of
notch
is the olecranon process which
fits
127
The right radius and ulna. Anterior view. 128
 . The hand:

. Composed of the wrist, palm and

5
fingers.

129
 . Bones of the wrist (Carpus):
. Three groups of bones in the
wrist
and hand.
. 1st group of 8 short carpal
bones
form the wrist.
. 2nd group of 5 long bones is the
metacarpals that form the palm
of
hand. 130
 . Carpal or wrist bones:

. Contains 8 small carpal bones.

. Held together by ligaments.
. Arranged in two rows of 4
bones.
. From outside inwards they are:
. Proximal row: scaphoid,
lunate,
triquetral, pisiform.
. Distal row: trapezium, 131
trapezoid,
. Bones of the proximal row are
associated with the wrist joint.
. Distal row form
joints with the
metacarpal bones.

132
The bones of wrist, hand and fingers. Anterior view 133
 . Metacarpal bones or the palm of
the
hand:

. 5 metacarpal bones form the

palm
of the hand.
. One in line with each finger.
. Consists of a proximal base, an
intermediate body and a distal
head. 134
 . Heads of the metacarpals are
commonly called the knuckles
visible
in a clenched fist.
. Proximal ends articulate with the
carpal bones and the distal ends
with
the phalanges.

135
 . Phalanges or finger bones:

. 14 phalanges in each hand

3 in each finger (proximal,
middle and
distal).
. 2 in the thumb(pollex). Lacks a
middle
phalanx.
. Proximal phalanges articulates
with 136
 . In order from the thumb, the
other
fingers are the index finger,
middle
finger, ring finger and little
finger.

137
 . RECAP:

. Upper extremity:
. The humerus in the arm.
. Radius(lateral) and
ulna(medial) in
the forearm.
. 3 carpals in the wrist.
. 5 metacarpals in the palm of
hand.
138
. 14 phalanges in the fingers.
 . Pelvic (Hip) girdle and lower limb:

. Connects the trunk to the lower

extremities.
. Provides strong support dor thw
weight of body.
. Bones of the pelvic girdle are:
. 2 innominate or hip (coxal)
bones.
. 1 sacrum.

139
 . Innominate or hip bones:

. An irregular flat bone.

Formed by the union of bones
the ilium, pubis and ischium.
. Outer surface there is a deep
depression, the acetabulum
which
holds the head of the femur to

140
form the hip joint
The right innominate bone. Lateral view. 141
 . Ilium:

. Major portion and the largest of

the
coxal bone.
. Has a large, flared region (ala or
wing).
. Superior curved border is the
iliac
crest which are attached many
142
muscles.
143
144
. The sciatic notch forms a deep
indentation in the posterior region
where the sciatic nerve passes.

145
The bones of the pelvis and the
upper part of the femur. 146
. Ischium:

. Lower, posterior
portion of coxal
bone.
. The ischial
tuberosity
is the large,
rough inferior portion
of the ischium.
147
148
 . Pubis:

. Anterior portion of the coxal

bone.
. 2 pubic bones meet at the pubic
symphysis.
. Armlike
extension is
the pubic
rami.
. V-shaped arch
149
(pubic arch).
 . Differences between male and
female
pelvis:

. Shape of female pelvis allows

for the
passage of the baby during
childbirth.
. Female pelvis has lighter
bones, is
more shallow and rounded. 150
The differences in shape of the male
and female pelvis.
151
 . RECAP:

. 2 ossa coxae or innominate

(coxal)
bones
form the pelvic girdle.
. Each coxal is formed by ilium,
ischium
and pubis fused together at
acetabulum.
152
. Pubic bones meet anteriorly at
 . Lower extremity:
. Consists of 30 bones of the
lower
limb are:
. Thigh - 1 femur.
. Leg - 1 tibia.
- 1 fibula.
. Kneecap - 1 patella.
. Foot - 7 tarsal bones.
- 5 metatarsal bones.
153

- 14 phalanges (toes)
154
 . Thigh bone (Femur):

. Region from the hip to the

knee.
. Largest, longest, and strongest
bone
in the body.
. Large, smooth ball-like head
(proximal end) has small
deperssion(fovea capitis).
. Articulates with acetabulum
to 155
156
 . Below the head is a constricted
neck of the femur that joins the
shaft.
. Prominent projection
at the proximal
end, the greater
trochanter (lateral
side) and the lesser
trochanter (medial
side). 157
 158
The left femur
159
 . The leg:

. Region between the knee and

the
ankle.
. Formed by:
. The slender fibula on the
lateral
side.
. The larger, weight-bearing
tibia or 160
 . Patella (kneecap):
. A small, triangular bone in front
of
the joint between the femur and
tibia.
. A sesamoid bone enclosed within
the
major tendon.
. Functions are to maintain the
position
of tendon when the knee is 161
162
 . Tibia (shin bone):

. Larger, medial bone of the leg

and
bears the weight of the body.
. Proximal end expands into a
lateral
condyle and a medial condyle
which
articulates with the condyles of
femur to form the knee joint and
163
 . Tibial tuberosity is on the
anterior
surface below the condyles is a
point
of attachment for the patellar
ligament.
. The medial surface of the distal
end of
the tibia forms the medial
malleolus
which articulates with the talus
164
 . The fibulla:

. Parallel and lateral to the tibia.

. Considerably smaller than the
tibia.
. A long bone with a shaft and
two
ends.
. Upper end or head articulates
with
the lateral condyle of the tibia
below 165
 . Distal end has a projection called
the
lateral malleolus that articulates
with
the talus of the ankle.

166
The left tibia and fibula 167
. Bones of the foot:

. Composed of:
. The ankle.
. Instep.
. 5 toes.

168
 . The tarsal bones (ankle):
. Contains 7 bones held together
by
ligaments.
. All are short bones made up of
cancellous bone tissues covered
with compact bone.
. These bones support the body
weight
when standing.
169
.

170
 . Calcaneum(heel bone)the largest
and
strongest tarsal bone located on
the
posterior part of the foot.
. Large muscles of the calf are
attached to the calcaneum
through
tendon of Achilles.
. The talus rest on top of the
calcaneum. 171
. Ankle joint:

172
 . Instep of the foot (Metatarsus):

. Contain 5 metatarsal long bones

numbered 1 to 5 from the
medial
to the lateral position.
. Each metatarsal consists of a
proximal base, an intermediate
body
and a distal head.
. First metatarsals is connected
to the 173
 . The phalanges:

. 14 bones of the toes.

. Each consists of a proximal
base, an
intermediate body and a distal
head.
. The big toe (hallux) has two
large,
heavy phalanges – proximal and
distal.
. The other four toes each have174
Bones of the foot 175
. RECAP

176
 . RECAP:

. Lower extremity includes:

. The femur in the thigh.
. The tibia (medial) and fibula
(lateral) in the leg.
. 7 tarsal bones in the ankle.
. 5 metatarsal bones in the
instep of
the foot.
. 14 phalanges in the toes.
. 1 patella.
177
6. Structure and movement of
joints:

178
Definition:

. Site where 2
bones articulate
or come together.
. Allow flexibility
and movement of
skeleton.
. Allow attachment
between bones.
179
 . Classification and functions of
joints:

a. Synarthroses or Immovable
joints
(Fibrous joints).
b. Amphiarthroses or Slightly
movable
joints (Cartilaginous joints).
c. Diarthroses or Freely movable
joints (Synovial joints). 180
 a. Synarthroses or Immovable joints
(Fibrous joints):

. Singular is synarthrosis.
. Immovable joints or fixed
joints.
. Bones come in very close
contact.
. Separated only by a thin layer
of
fibrous connective tissues.
. Eg: The sutures in the skull 181
 b. Amphiarthroses or Slightly
movable
joints (Cartilaginous joints):

. Slightly movable joints.

. Bones are connected by hyaline
cartilage or fibrocartilage.
. Eg: Ribs connected to the
sternum.
Joints between the
vertebrae, 182
183
 c. Diarthroses or Freely movable
joints (Synovial joints):

. Most joints in the adult body.

. Freely movable joints.
. Characteristics of these joints:
. Ends of the opposing bones
covered with hyaline
cartilage.
(articular cartilage).
. Separated by a space(joint
cavity). 184
7. Synovial joints:

185
Synovial joint 186
187
 . Components of the joints are
enclosed
in a dense fibrous joint capsule.
. Outer layer of capsule consists of
ligaments that hold the bones
together.
. Inner layer is the synovial
membrane
that secretes synovial fluid into
the
joint cavity for lubrication. 188
 . Some have pads and cushions
associated with them.
. Knee has fibrocartilaginous pads
called
semilunar cartilages or lateral
meniscus and medial meniscus.

189
190
191
.

192
.

193
 Types of synovial joints:

a. Ball and socket:

. Head or ball of one
bone articulates
with a socket of
another.
. Eg: . Flexion, extension,
abduction,
adduction and rotation.
. Shoulder and hip joints.
194
 b. Hinge joints:
. Allow the
movements
of flexion and
extension only.
. Eg: . Elbow, knee, ankle.
. Joints between the atlas
and
the occipital bones.
. Interphalanges joints 195of
b. Hinge joints: elbow hinge

joint

196
 c. Gliding joints:

. Articular surfaces
glide over each
other.

. Eg: . Joints between the carpal

bones and the tarsal
bones.
197
 d. Pivot joints:

. Movement is
round one axis
(rotation).
. Eg: . Proximal and distal
radioulnar
joints.
. Joint between the atlas.
. Odontoid process of the
198
 e. Condyloid and saddle joints:

. Movements take place round 2

axes.
. Permit flexion, extension, and
abduction,
. Eg: . The wrist,
temporomandibular,
metacarpophalangeal
and
metatarsophalangeal199
. RECAP

200
 . Muscles:

. Specific Objectives:
At the end of this session, the
students
should be able to:

1. identify the types of muscle

tissue.
2. describe the structure and
201
characteristics of various types
 3. identify the position and
functions of
various muscle.
4. describe the physiology of
muscle
contraction.

202
 1. Types of muscle tissue:

. 3 types of muscle tissue:

a. Skeletal or striated muscle.
. Under conscious control.

. Attached to the bone via

tendon.
. Used to move the
skeleton.
203
 b. Visceral or smooth or non-
striated muscle.
. Not under conscious control.
. Cells are small, have one
nucleus
and are spindle shaped.
. Found in hollow organs eg.
stomach, blood vessels.
. Participates in internal
process
204
such as digestion and
 c. Cardiac muscle.
. Found in the wall of the
heart.

205
 2. Structure and characteristics of the
various types of muscle:

a. Excitability (irritability):
. Ability to receives and respond to
a stimuli from nervous system.
• b. Contractility:
• . Ability to shorten or contract.
• . When respond to stimulus, it
• shortens to produce movement.

206
 b. Contractility:
. Ability to shorten or contract.
. When respond to stimulus, it
shortens to produce movement.

c. Extensibility:
. Ability to be stretched or
extended.
. When one muscle contracts, the
other muscle relaxed and
stretched.
207
 d. Elasticity:
. Ability to recoil or return to
the
original shape and length
after
contraction or extension.

208
 Structure of skeletal muscle:

. Considered an organ of
muscular
system.
. Each muscle consists of
skeletal
muscle tissue, connective
tissue,
nerve tissue and blood or
vascular 209
i. Whole skeletal muscle:

. Tendon connects skeletal muscle to

bone.
. Muscle belly is surrounded by a
connective tissue sheath
(epimysium).
. Muscle is divided into compartment,
containing bundle of muscle fibers
(fasiculus).

210
.

Whole skeletal muscle 211

 . Perimysium - connective tissue
surrounding fasiculus.
. Endomysium - connective tissue
surrounding individual muscle
fibers
(muscle cell).

212
ii. Skeletal muscle attachment:

. Epimysium, perimysium and

endomysium extend beyond
the
muscle belly to form a thick
ropelike
tendon.
. Tendon form direct attachment
to
the periosteum of bones. 213
iii. Skeletal muscle fibers:

. Each skeletal muscle fiber is a

single muscle cell.
. Cell membrane surrounding
muscle
fiber is sarcolemma.
. Sarcoplasm is the cytoplasm
of
muscle fiber.
214
 3. Functions of skeletal muscle:
Muscle contraction fulfills 4
important functions:
a. Movement:
. Result of muscle
contraction.
. Integrated action of joints,
bones and skeletal muscles
produces obvious
movement.
. Subtle movement eg: facial215
 b. Posture:
. Sitting and standing
maintained as
a result of muscle contraction.
. Joint stability.

c. Joint stability:
. Tendons of muscle contribute
to
joint stability.
216
 d. Heat production:
. Maintain body temperature.
. 85% of heat produced in the
body
is result of muscle
contraction.

217
4. Types of movements:

a. gliding.
b. angular movements.
c. rotation.

218
a. Glidings:

. A simple movement.
. Flat bone surfaces
move back and
forth and side to
side relative to one
another.
. Occurs at planar joints.
219
 b. Angular movements:

. Increase or decrease in the

angle
between articulating bones.
. Principal angular movements
are:
. Flexion.
. Extension.
. Abduction.
. Adduction. 220
. Flexon:
. Decrease in the
angle between
articulating bones.
. Eg:
. Bending the head
towards the chest.
. Moving the humerus
forward at
the shoulder joint.
. Moving the palm
221
toward the forearm.
. Moving forearm toward the
shoulder.
. Moving the palm toward the
forearm.

222
 . Extension:
. Increase in the
angle between
articulating bones.
. Continuation of
extension beyond
the anatomical
position is called
hyperextension.
. Eg:
. Bending the humerus
backward. 223
 . Moving the head backward.
. Moving palm backward at the
wrist.

224
. Abduction:
. Movement of a bone
away from the
midline.
. Eg:
. Lateral movement of the
humerus upward.
. Palm away from the body.
. Femur away from the body.
225
226
. Adduction:
. Movement of a bone toward the
midline.
. Eg: . Lateral movement of the
humerus downward.
. Palm toward the body.
. Femur toward the body.

227
 c. Rotation:
. A bone revolves around its own
longitudinal axis.
. Pivot and ball-and-socket joints
permit rotation.
. Eg: . Turning the head from
side to
side.

228
229
. RECAP

230
231