The Endocrine

System

What is a gland?
It is an organ that develops a
secretion which performs a
specific functions.

CLASSIFICATION OF GLANDS

EXOCRINE
ENDOCRINE

 The endocrine system includes the organs of the

body that secrete hormones directly into body
fluids such as blood
Regulates chemical reaction in cells and therefore
control functions of the organs, tissues, and other
cells
bloodstream

Glands

secrete
hormones

into

to

target tissues

Hormones
Comes from the Greek
word which means to
arouse
Are chemical
messengers formed
from substances taken
from the blood
Regulate growth,
development,
metabolism, sex
processes
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Negative and Positive

Feedback Loops
Control hormone levels
Negative feedback loop
Hormone release stops in response to
decrease in stimulus

Negative and Positive

Feedback Loops
Positive feedback loop
As long as stimulus is present, action of
hormone continues

Mechanisms
of hormone
release

(a) Humoral: in response to changing

levels of ions or nutrients in the blood
(b) Neural: stimulation by nerves
(c) Hormonal: stimulation received from
other hormones

 Hormones
need a specific
receptor on a
specific cell to
do their job

The Endocrine System

Is made up of ductless glands
they secrete their hormones directly into
tissue uid
the hormones diffuse into the
bloodstream for distribution throughout the
body
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Endocrine System
Help maintain and control the following:

body energy levels

reproduction
growth and development
internal balance of body systems, called
homeostasis
responses to surroundings, stress, and
injury
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Endocrine Organs
Purely endocrine organs

Pituitary gland
Pineal gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
Adrenal: 2 glands
Cortex
Medulla

Endocrine cells in other

organs

Pancreas
Thymus
Gonads
Hypothalamus

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Hypothalamus Gland
Major
regulating
gland
Hypothalamus___
of the
body
13

Hypothalamus controls anterior pituitary

hormone release
Releasing hormones (releasing factors)
Secreted like neurotransmitters from neuronal axons
into capillaries and veins to anterior pituitary
(adenohypophysis)
TRH-----turns on TSH
CRH-----turns on ACTH
GnRH (=LHRH)---turns on FSH and LH
PRF-----turns on PRL
GHRH----turns on GH

Inhibiting hormones
PIF-----turns off PRL
GH inhibiting hormone ---turns off GH
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Pituitary Gland
Hypophysis
Master gland
Small gland located
under the
hypothalamus
2 parts:
- anterior
(adenohypophysis)
- posterior
(neurohypohysis)
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The Pituitary

Pituitary secretes 8 hormones

Two divisions:
Anterior pituitary
(adenohypophysis)

1. TSH
The first four are tropic
2. ACTH
hormones, they regulate the
3. FSH
function of other hormones
4.
LH
________
5. GH
6. PRL

_________________________________________________________________

Posterior pituitary
(neurohypophysis)

7. ADH (antidiuretic hormone), or vasopressin

8. Oxytocin

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What the letters stand for

TSH: thyroid-stimulating hormone

ACTH: adrenocorticotropic hormone
FSH: follicle-stimulating hormone
LH: luteinizing hormone
GH: growth hormone
PRL: prolactin

ADH: antidiuretic hormone

Oxytocin
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Pituitary Gland (cont.)

Growth hormone
Stimulates increase in size
of muscles and bones
Luteinizing

Prolactin

Anterior
Lobe

Females: stimulates ovulation

and estrogen production
Males: stimulates testosterone production
Adrenocorticotropic

Stimulates the adrenal

cortex to release its
hormones

Stimulates milk
production

Thyroid-stimulating

Stimulates the
thyroid gland to
release its hormones
Follicle-stimulating

Females: stimulates estrogen

production and maturation of the
ova
Males: stimulates sperm
production

Pituitary Gland (cont.)

Oxytocin

Posterior
Lobe
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Stimulates the kidneys to
conserve water

34-19

Females: causes
contraction of the uterus
and ejection of breast
milk
Males: stimulates
contraction of the prostate
and vas deferens during
sexual arousal

So what do the pituitary hormones do?

The four tropic ones regulate the function of other hormones:

TSH stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid

hormone
ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce
corticosteroids: aldosterone and cortisol
FSH stimulates follicle growth and ovarian
estrogen production; stimulates sperm
production and androgen-binding protein
LH has a role in ovulation and the growth of the
corpus luteum; stimulates androgen secretion by
interstitial cells in testes
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Hormones Release by the Anterior Pituitary

Gland

21

Hormones Secreted by the Posterior

Pituitary

22

The others from the anterior pituitary

GH (aka somatrotropic hormone)
stimulates growth of skeletal epiphyseal
plates and body to synthesize protein
PRL stimulates mammary glands in breast
to make milk
MSH stimulates melanocytes; may
increase mental alertness

23

Adrenal Glands
Located above the kidneys
Cone-shaped glands
Hormone:
- Adrenaline (epinephrine)
prepares the body for
physical activity
- Cortisol (Glucocorticoids)
- increase fat and protein
breakdown
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Adrenal Gland
Adrenal cortex
Secretes lipid-based steroid hormones, called
corticosteroids cortico as in cortex
MINERALOCORTICOIDS
Aldosterone is the main one

GLUCOCORTICOIDS
Cortisol (hydrocortisone) is the main one

Adrenal medulla
Secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine
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ADRENAL GLAND

ADRENAL CORTEX

ADRENAL MEDULLA

Secretes steroid hormones

Secretes hormones controlled

by ANS

Glucocorticoids (metabolism)
eg. cortisol

Epinephrine (Adrenaline)

Mineralocorticoids
(homeostasis of ions) eg.
Aldosterone

Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)

Gonadocorticoids (estrogens &

androgens)

ADRENAL HORMONES
REGION

HARMONES

EFFECT

Cortex
1. Zona glomerulos

Mineralocorticoid: Renal reabsorption of sodium ions

& water.
Aldosterone
renal potassium ion loss

2. Zona fasciculata

Glucocorticoid:
cortisol

3. Zona Reticularis

Androgens

Medulla

Epinephrine
(Adrenaline),
Norepinephrine
(Noradrenaline)

Releases amino acids from skeletal

muscle & lipids from adipose.
Promotes liver glycogen & glucose
formation
Anti inflammatory effect

cardiac activity
blood pressure
glycogen breakdown
blood glucose

Aldosterone, the main mineralocorticoid

Secreted by adrenal cortex in response to
a decline in either blood volume or blood
pressure (e.g. severe hemorrhage)
Is terminal hormone in renin-angiotensin
mechanism

Prompts distal and collecting tubules in

kidney to reabsorb more sodium
Water passively follows
Blood volume thus increases
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Cortisol, the most important glucocorticoid

(Glucocorticoid receptors are found in the cells of most vertebrate tissues)

It is essential for life

Helps the body deal with stressful situations within
minutes
Physical: trauma, surgery, exercise
Psychological: anxiety, depression, crowding
Physiological: fasting, hypoglycemia, fever,
infection

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Cortisol, continued
Keeps blood glucose levels high enough to support
brains activity
Catabolic: break down protein
Redirects circulating lymphocytes to lymphoid and
peripheral tissues where pathogens usually are
In large quantities, depresses immune and
inflammatory response
Used therapeutically
Responsible for some of its side effects

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Hormonal stimulation of glucocorticoids

HPA axis (hypothalamic/pituitary/adrenal axis)
With stress, hypothalamus sends CRH to
anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
Pituitary secretes ACTH
ACTH goes to adrenal cortex where stimulates
glucocorticoid secretion
Sympathetic nervous system can also stimulate it

Adrenal cortex also secretes DHEA

(dehydroepiandrosterone)
Converted in peripheral tissues to testosterone and
estrogen (also steroid hormones)

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Adrenal medulla
Part of autonomic
nervous system
Spherical chromaffin
cells are modified
postganglionic
sympathetic neurons
Vesicles store the
hormones

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33

The Pancreas
Exocrine and
endocrine cells
Acinar cells (forming
most of the pancreas)
Exocrine function
Secrete digestive
enzymes
Islet cells (of
Langerhans)
Endocrine function
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Pancreas
Lies behind the stomach
Hormones:
Insulin
Glucagon

35

HORMONES OF PANCREAS

CELLS

HARMONE EFFECT

Alpha () cells

Glucagon

Glucose synthesis & glycogen

breakdown in liver
Blood glucose concentration

Beta () cells

Insulin

Stimulation of lipids & glycogen

storage & formation
Blood glucose concentration

Delta () cells

Somatostatin

Inhibits secretion of insulin &

glucagon

Pancreas (cont.)
Islets of Langerhans secrete hormones into
bloodstream
Alpha cells secrete glucagon
Beta cells secrete insulin

Blood glucose
concentrations

Protein synthesis

Blood glucose
concentrations

Protein synthesis

Pancreatic islet
endocrine cells

Alpha cells: secrete glucagon

raises blood sugar
mostly in periphery
Beta cells: secrete insulin
lowers blood sugar
central part (are more abundant)
Also rare Delta cells:secrete
somatostatin inhibits glucagon

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Ovaries
Located on one side of the
uterus
Pair of glands that function
to produce egg cells
Hormones:
Estrogen
Progesterone

39

Testes
Located near the penis
Pair of glands that functions
to produce sperm cells
Hormones:
Testosterone responsible
for the development of
secondary sex
characteristics

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Endocrine cells in various organs

The heart: atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
Stimulates kidney to secrete more salt

The placenta secretes steroid and protein

hormones
Estrogens, progesterone
CRH
HCG
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Endocrine cells in various organs continued

The kidneys
Juxtaglomerular cells secrete renin
Renin indirectly signals adrenal cortex to secrete
aldosterone
Erythropoietin: signals bone marrow to increase
RBC production
The skin
Modified cholesterol with uv exposure becomes
Vitamin D precursor
Vitamin D necessary for calcium metabolism:
signals intestine to absorb CA++
42

Pineal Gland
The pineal gland is involved in
several functions of the body
including:
Secretion of the Hormone
Melatonin
Regulation of Endocrine
Functions
Conversion of Nervous System
Signals to Endocrine Signals
Causes Feeling of Sleepiness
Influences Sexual Development

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Thyroid Gland and

Parathyroid Glands
Thyroid Gland
Located below the larynx
Divided into follicles that store some of the hormones

Major hormones

T3 T4
Stimulate protein synthesis and
increase cellular energy production

Lowers blood calcium levels by

activating osteoblasts that build new
bone tissue

Thyroid Gland
Found at the base of the neck
A soft, brownish-red organ
shaped like butterfly
Hormones:
- Thyroxine increases
metabolic rate, essential
for the normal process
of growth and maturation
- Calcitonin decreases the
rate of bone breakdown
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Hormone Loop
Metabolic rate Detected by
hypothalamus
Stimulates anterior pituitary Secretes
TSH
Blood stream target organ thyroid
Stimulate Thyroid to secrete T3/T4 Blood
stream
target organs adrenal medulla
Secretes
Epinephrine & Norepinephrine
Metabolic rate
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The Parathyroid Glands

On posterior surface of thyroid
gland
2 pairs pea-sized glands
Hormones
Parathyroid Hormone - helps
control the level of calcium
in the blood
- A small protein hormone
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Function of PTH
(parathyroid hormone or parathormone)

Increases blood Ca++ (calcium)

concentration when it gets too low
Mechanism of raising blood calcium
1. Stimulates osteoclasts to release more Ca++ from
bone
2. Decreases secretion of Ca++ by kidney
3. Activates Vitamin D, which stimulates the uptake of
Ca++ from the intestine

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Thymus Glands
Located on the upper
part of the chest, below
the neck
Consists of 2 lobes
Hormone:
Thymosin promotes
immune system
development and
function
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HARMONES OF THYROID, PARATHYROID & THYMUS

ORGAN

HORMONE EFFECT

Thyroid gland
T3 & T4
(Follicular cells)

energy utilization
oxygen consumption
growth & development

Thyroid gland
(C cells)

Calcitonin

Calcium ion concentration

in body fluids

Parathyroid

PTH

Thymus

Thymosin

Calcium ion concentration

in body fluids
Maturation & functional
competence of immune
system

Diagnostic Tests

Thyroid Scan
Thyroid ultrasound
Thyroid biopsy
Stimulation tests (Ex. TRH)
Suppression tests (Ex. Steroid)
Urine tests
Radiographic tests
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THYROID
SCAN
utilizes a
scintillation camera
or scintiscanner
to evaluate the
thyroid gland
following
administration of a
radioactive isotope
or technetium.
52

Nursing Management
Ask the client if he received radiographic contrast for the
past 3 months.
Assess if client is receiving medications with iodine
(Lugols solution, cough syrup, multivitamins). Discontinue
for 2 weeks prior to scan
Thyroid medications are disconitnued 6 weeks prior to
scan
If I123 is used, NPO state post midnight and 45 minutes
after ingesting the isotope, scan is performed after 24 hrs.
If technetium is used, administered 30 minutes before the
scan.
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Thyroid
Ultrasound
It is useful in
differentiation of fluid
filled cysts or tumors.
It involves the use of
ultrasonic pulses that
are directed at the
thyroid gland.
The sound waves
bounce back and are
displayed on an
oscilloscope.
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THYROID ULTRASOUND
RESULT

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Thyroid Biopsy

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URINE TESTS
24- HOUR URINE
COLLECTION

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STIMULATION TEST

SUPPRESSION TEST

Substances are
injected to stimulate
a release of
hormones.
Ex: injection of
histamine could
trigger release of
gastric secretions.
TSH to stimulate the
thyroid gland.

Substances injected
suppresses the
release of a
hormone.
Ex: injection of
steroids suppresses
the release of
catecholamines in
the adrenal medulla.

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RADIOGRAPHIC TESTS

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60

TEST YOURSELF

SUPPLY THE MISSING

NAMES
1
2
3
4
5
6

7
8
9
10

11
12
13

SUPPLY THE ANSWERS

14. THE MASTER GLAND
15. HORMONE PRODUCED BY THE
PARATHYROID HORMONE
16.
17.
HORMONES PRODUCED BY THE
THYROID GLAND
18.

MATCHING TYPE
19. ADH
20. Prolactin
21. Growth
Hormone
22. Oxytocin
23. ACTH

A. ANTERIOR
PITUITARY
B. POSTERIOR
PITUITARY

24. A thyroid hormone that lowers blood

calcium levels by activating osteoblasts
that build new bone tissue
25. The hormone secreted by the alpha cells
of the Islets of Langerhans that helps
decrease blood glucose in the blood
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