TERMINOLOGY

Lect. Raluca Ghentulescu, PhD

 WHAT IS TERMINOLOGY?
Terminology = 1) an individual science, separate
from linguistics, which deals with the collection,
description, processing and presentation of
terms
= 2) a comprehensive method to classify
concepts and to organize the specific information
in a certain field, in an attempt to improve
communication between specialists and laymen
= 3) a set of terms belonging to a specific field
(i.e. a jargon)
 HOW HAS IT BECOME AN
INDIVIDUAL SCIENCE?
The accelerated progress of technology
has led to the necessity of introducing new
terms for the new concepts (or realities).
It was necessary to standardize the terms
chosen to name these new concepts.
People felt the need to create term
databases that could be easily accessed
by all those interested in a particular field.
 WHEN DID IT EMERGE?
The founding fathers are Linnaeus and Lavoisier, who, in
the 18th century, created the first wordlists/
nomenclatures for their fields (i.e. biology and chemistry)
In 1931, the Austrian engineer Eugen Wuster laid the
bases of Terminology as an independent science by:
publishing his doctoral thesis on the international
standardization of technical terminology;
establishing the main principles for dealing with terms;
pointing to the need of processing terminological data, in
order to eliminate ambiguity from the technical and
scientific language.
 THE HISTORY OF
TERMINOLOGY
the origins, between 1930 and 1960, when, thanks to
Wsters contribution, it emerged as an independent
subject of study;
the structuring of the field, between 1960 and 1975, when
the principles established by Wster were universally
accepted and the first databanks with international
participation appeared;
the boom, between 1975 and 1985, when the use of
computers on a large scale facilitated the spread of
standardized terms and the creation of new complex
databases;
the expansion, started in 1985 and continued up to now,
thanks to the development of computer science and the
efforts of the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO).
 WHY IS IT NECESSARY?
To transfer knowledge from one field of
study to another or from specialized
languages to the general language.
To formulate, disseminate and store
scientific and technical information.
To designate newly emerged realities.
To translate technical and scientific texts.
 WHAT ARE LGP AND LSP?
LGP = language for general purpose
- deals with WORDS
LSP = language for special purposes
- based on LGP
- deals with TERMS
- influences the general language, as many
specialized terms have entered the
common use (e.g. to forge a plan, to
hammer something)
 LGP VS. LSP
Specialists attribute a different meaning to the
general words from LGP and this is how terms
are created.
E.g. terminal = a point or part that forms the
end (cf. The Free Dictionary) in LGP
= a specialized term in no less than
8 different fields: Electronics, Computer science,
Transport, Business, Architecture, Medicine,
Botany and Fine arts.
 LSPs
Horizontally, LSPs are divided into various
subject fields, according to the type of
information transmitted (e.g. technical, scientific,
medical etc.).
Vertically, LSPs are divided according to various
criteria:
the degree of specialization;
the type of communication (verbal or written);
the context;
the agents involved in the exchange of
information (i.e. the sender and the receiver).
 LEXICOLOGY VS.
TERMINOLOGY
LEXICOLOGY = the branch of linguistics
that studies WORDS, their nature and
meaning, as well as the relations between
words, word groups and the whole
vocabulary (semantic relations).
TERMINOLOGY = the branch of
linguistics that studies TERMS, their
nature and meaning, as well as the
relations between them.
 LEXICOGRAPHY VS.
TERMINOGRAPHY
LEXICOGRAPHY = the analysis and description
of the semantic, syntagmatic and paradigmatic
relationships of WORDS;
- it deals with the creation of printed and
electronic (general) dictionaries.
TERMINOGRAPHY = the analysis and
description of the semantic, syntagmatic and
paradigmatic relationships of TERMS;
- it deals with the creation of wordlists
(nomenclatures), glossaries, printed and
electronic specialized dictionaries, and
databases
 BASIC TERMINOLOGICAL
NOTIONS
Object = a physical entity, perceptible by one or more
senses; a material thing
Concept = the mental representation of an object (i.e. a
being or a thing), quality, feeling, action, location,
situation or relation
Word = the linguistic representation of a concept, to
which one or several meanings may be attached,
depending on the context (e.g. happy cheerful glad
joyful fortunate - elated); it belongs to LGP
Term = the linguistic representation of a concept, made
up of a word, phrase, abbreviation or acronym, letter,
graphic symbol or formula, which has one particular
meaning in one context (e.g. table salt sodium chloride
NaCl); it is more precise than a word and belongs to a
system of terms, in one or more LSPs
 TERMINOLOGICAL
RELATIONSHIPS
1) Generic (logical) relationship It identifies concepts
belonging to the same category, in which there are a
broader (generic) concept, called the genus or the
superordinate, and several narrower (specific)
concepts, called the subordinates, which differ from
their superordinate by a number of specific differences,
called the differentiae
The generic relationship can be expressed by the formula:
X is a type of A or X, Y and Z are types of A
E.g. Gold is a type of metal. (gold = subordinate; metal =
superordinate or genus)
Hammers, screwdrivers and pliers are types of tools.
(hammers, screwdrivers, pliers = subordinates; tool =
superordinate or genus)
2) Partitive relationship or whole-part
relationship It indicates the connection
between concepts consisting of more than
one part and their constituent parts. It can
be expressed by the formula: X is a
constituent of A or X, Y and Z are
constituent parts of A.
e.g. A processor is a constituent of a
computer.
The crankshaft, the carburetor and the
pistons are constituent parts of an engine.
3) Complex relationships:
a) Cause effect: explosion fallout
b) Material product: steel girder
c) Material property: glass brittle
d) Material state: iron corrosion
e) Process product: weaving cloth
f) Process instrument: incision scalpel
g) Phenomenon unit of measurement: force
Newton
h) Object container: hammer toolbox
i) Object shape: globe round
j) Activity place: drilling - rig
 DESCRIPTION OF CONCEPTS -
DEFINITIONS
Definition = a description of a concept by means
of other known concepts, mostly in form of
words and terms
The functions of a definition:
To explain a concept
To assign a concept to a field
To differentiate a concept from other similar
concepts
To establish the relationships between concepts
 PARTS OF A DEFINITION
DEFINIENDUM = what is to be defined
DEFINIENS = how something is defined
A definition must contain the superordinate
concept (i.e. the genus) and the distinctive
characteristics (i.e. the differentiae)
e.g. screwdriver = a tool (= GENUS) used for
turning screws, usually having a handle of wood
or plastic and a steel shank with a flattened
square-cut tip that fits into a slot in the head of
the screw (= DIFFERENTIAE)
 TYPES OF DEFINITION (1)
1. Definition by analysis
e.g. pneumonia = an inflammation of lung tissue
2. Definition by synonymy
e.g. daisy = Bellis perennis
3. Definition by paraphrase
e.g. blackness = the state of being black
4. Definition by description
e.g. bronchitis = inflammation of the bronchial tubes, characterized by
coughing, difficulty in breathing, etc., caused by infection or
irritation of the respiratory tract
5. Definition by implication (by using the word in an explicative context)
e.g. dial = a clock or watch has a dial divided into segments for hours
and minutes over which the hands move
 TYPES OF DEFINITION (2)
6. Definition by denotation (by giving examples)
e.g. tools = hammers, screwdrivers, pliers, tongs, saws etc.
7. Mixed types:
a) Definition by analysis and description
e.g. steel = A generally hard, strong, durable, malleable alloy of iron and
carbon, usually containing between 0.2 and 1.5 percent carbon, often
with other constituents such as manganese, chromium, nickel,
molybdenum, copper, tungsten, cobalt, or silicon, depending on the
desired alloy properties, and widely used as a structural material.
b) Definition by synonymy and description
e.g. daisy = any of several plants of the composite family, especially a widely
naturalized Eurasian plant (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum) having
flower heads with a yellow center and white rays.
c) Definition by synonymy and analysis
e.g. oblong = elliptical, blunt at each end, having nearly parallel sides, and two
to four times as long as broad
 DEFECTIVE DEFINITIONS
1. Incomplete definitions: some important differentiae are missing
(e.g. silver = a lustrous white, ductile, malleable metallic element
WHAT ABOUT PLATINUM?)
2. Excessively restrictive definitions: the characteristics given in the
definition are too specific and exclude other possible options (e.g.
medicine bottle = bottle made of glass, used to keep medicines in
WHAT ABOUT PLASTIC MEDICINE BOTTLES?)
3. Excessively broad definitions: the characteristics given in the
definition are not restrictive enough (e.g. A large hoofed mammal
used since ancient times for riding and carrying loads WHAT
ABOUT THE DONKEY?)
4. Circular definitions: the term is defined by a phrase which contains
one or several of its derivatives, without explaining them (e.g.
incomprehensibility = the characteristic of being incomprehensible)
 AIDS TO DEFINITIONS
Illustrations (pictures, charts, diagrams)
Examples
Contexts
Formulae
 TERM - definition
TERM = a linguistic symbol assigned to one
or more concepts, which are defined in
accordance with similar concepts. It can
be a word, a phrase, a letter or graphic
symbol, an abbreviation or an acronym
It has: 1. a content (= semantic value =
meaning)
2. an expression (= the communicable
linguistic form)
 TERM - features
Accurate (i.e. logical and to a high degree self-explanatory): e.g.
combine harvester, motor lawn mower
Concise (i.e. as short as possible without affecting its clarity)
Easily spelt and pronounced
Able to form derivatives (e.g. compute computer computerized
computerization)
In accordance with language specificity (e.g. Germ. Dieselmotor
Engl. Diesel engine French moteur Diesel Romanian motor
Diesel)
Included in a term system (e.g. hammer, screwdriver, pliers = tools)
Preferably monosemous (i.e. one single meaning in one single
context in one single field, in order to avoid possible confusions)
 TERM - recommendations
Avoid pleonasm: e.g. gradual scale (scale
= system divided into grades/degrees)
Avoid superfluous elements: e.g. quartz
mineral (quartz is a mineral)
Avoid the spelling differences between
British English and American English:
organisation vs. organization; behaviour
vs. behavior etc.
 POSSIBILITIES OF ASSIGNING TERMS
TO CONCEPTS

1. Monosemy
2. Polysemy
3. Synonymy
4. Equivalence
5. Homonymy
 MONOSEMY
= the quality of a word/term that has a single
meaning in a single context
- the optimal situation in Terminology,
because it leaves no room for ambiguity
e.g. most medical terms are monosemous,
for a higher degree of precision in
describing diagnoses and symptoms
 POLYSEMY
= the quality of a word/term that has multiple meanings: 1 basic/proper
meaning and several derived meanings or figurative meanings

e.g. gate (word) = an opening in a wall or fence for entrance or exit

basic/proper meaning
gate (word) = A means of access: the gate to riches figurative
meaning
gate (term) 7 different derived meanings only in the field of
Electronics, plus 6 other derived meanings in 6 different fields (e.g.
IT, Sports, Aviation, Hydraulics, Metallurgy and Economics)

Polysemy occurs when a term denotes two or more distinct concepts,

which are somehow related, although they do not necessarily belong
to the same system of concepts.
 SYNONYMY
= the semantic relation of two or more terms that designate the same concept
in the same language
- unwelcome in Terminology, because it contradicts the principles of precision
and clarity
There are 3 types of synonymy:
1. Total synonymy
e.g. sidewalk (AE) = pavement (BE) regional differences
Sodium chloride = table salt = common salt = NaCl register differences
2. Quasy-synonymy (partial synonymy)
e.g. pole pillar/column post mullion buttress
3. Pseudo-synonymy = the equivocal use of terms that the speakers, due to
their lack of specialized knowledge, believe to be synonymous
e.g. elasticity (the property of a body or substance that enables it to resume its
original shape or size when a distorting force is removed) plasticity (the
property of a substance to be moulded, given shape, or being made to
assume a desired form)
 EQUIVALENCE
= the semantic relation of two or more terms that designate the same
concept in different languages
1. Total equivalence: the term in one language covers all the extension
of the concept in the other language(s)
e.g. salt sel sare
2. Partial equivalence: the term in one language covers only a part of
the extension of the concept in the other language(s)
e.g. daisywheel printer imprimante a marguerite Typenraddrucker
imprimanta cu roata
Arsenic (Fr., Rom., Engl.) = As arsenik (Danish) = As2So3
3. Absence of equivalence: the term in one language has no equivalent
in another language
e.g. many anglicisms in Romanian: broker, show-biz
 HOMONYMY
= the quality of a term to designate two or
more concepts that have no semantic
relationship
e.g. trunk - of a tree, of an elephant, of a car
 CREATION OF TERMS
I. The use of existing resources
1. Terminologization
II. The modification of existing resources
1. Derivation
2. Compounding
3. Conversion
III. The use of new resources
1. Importation of loan-words
 I. TERMINOLOGIZATION
= the process of endowing a word from LGP
with a specific meaning that corresponds to
a specific concept in a certain field (i.e. in
an LSP)
e.g. terminal, bridge, gate
The meaning from LGP can be widened
(through simile, metaphor or metonymy) or
narrowed (through redefinition) in LSP(s).
 TERMINOLOGIZATION
Simile
Simile (comparison) = a figure of speech
that expresses the resemblance of one
thing to another, usually in compounds
with -style, -like, -type, -shape(d)
e.g. African-style furniture, claw-type
hammer, spider-like blood vessels, knife-
shape indicator, V-shaped columns
 TERMINOLOGIZATION -
Metaphor
Metaphor = a figure of speech in which a word or phrase
that ordinarily designates one thing is used to designate
another, thus making an implicit comparison
e.g. - metaphors based on parts of the body: bolt head,
spindle nose, trunk piston, hip tile, elbow lever
- metaphors based on names of animals
e.g. birds eye view, horse power, carrier dog
- metaphors based on physical resemblance
e.g. Christmas tree antenna, crown burner, bottleneck
 TERMINOLOGIZATION -
Metonymy
Metonymy = A figure of speech in which one word or phrase is
substituted for another with which it is closely associated
e.g. - the name of the country where a certain material was produced,
instead of the name of the material itself: china = porcelain; holland
= linen fabric
- the name of the material for the name of the object: glass, brass
- the shape of an object for another object of that shape: diamond,
ring, fork
- the name of the company for the object it initially produced: xerox
- the name of the inventor for the object he invented or the unit of
measurement he introduced: sandwich, cardigan; Newton, Watt,
Ohm
 TERMINOLOGIZATION -
Redefinition
Redefinition = the process of reducing the extension
of a concept, of narrowing down the meaning of a
word in LGP when turning it into a term in LSP
e.g. antibiotic (in LGP) = adj. Destroying life or
preventing the inception or continuance of life
antibiotic (in LSP - Medicine) = noun A substance
produced by or derived from certain fungi,
bacteria, and other organisms, that can destroy or
inhibit the growth of other microorganisms.
 II.1. DERIVATION
= the process by which words are formed from existing words or bases
by adding affixes (i.e. prefixes or suffixes)
e.g. electric electricity electrician electrically
- one of the most productive methods of term formation
In medical language, there are special affixes endowed with a
special meaning, taken from Latin or Greek and having an
international character (e.g. hypo- = below; -itis = inflammation)
Other affixes that have an international character are: non- (non-
oxidizing), a- (abiotic), trans- (transalpine), anti- (antibody), pseudo-
(pseudo-scientific), proto- (proto-history), inter- (international), intra-
(intrauterine)
 II.2. COMPOUNDING
= the process of combining two or more words into a new syntagmatic
unit that has a new meaning, independent of its constituent parts;
usually the first part of the compound determines the rest
There are 3 possibilities to write a compound: as two separate elements
(e.g. washing machine), as a hyphenated unit (slow-running) or as a
single word/term (e.g. carwash). Sometimes, the same compound
can be written in all these 3 forms (e.g. tool box, tool-box, toolbox).
NOTE: Do not mistake compounds, which function as 1 term and have
a totally different meaning from that of their constituents, for noun
phrases, which function as a group of terms and have a similar
meaning to that of their constituents!
Compare: vacuum cleaner (compound) vs. vacuum packed food
products (noun phrase)
 COMPOUNDING
The -ing form compounds are difficult to identify, because they may be:
full nouns (e.g. gearing lay-out), verbal nouns (e.g. landing gear) and
adjectives (e.g. revolving door)
Compounds are formed from several elements, which are grouped in
various combinations:
1. Noun + noun: vacuum cleaner
2. Noun + verb: carwash
3. Noun + numeral: carbon-tetra-chloride
4. Verb + noun: hang glider
5. Verb + verb: spindry
6. Adjective + verb: deepfreeze; fine-toothed
7. Adjective + noun: blueprint
8. Adjective + adjective: bluish-greenish
 II.3. CONVERSION
= a shift in word class (i.e. a word shifts from
one part of speech to another)
- Adjective to noun:
e.g. a constant motion Plancks constant
a variable rate the X variable
- Proper noun to common noun:
e.g. Rudolf Diesel diesel engine
Heinrich Hertz hertz wavelength
 III. LOAN-WORDS
Loans are introduced into a language when a concept that has originated in
another country has a form of expression (i.e. a word/term) only in the
language of that country => both the concept and the term are imported.
There are 4 different degrees of adaptation:
1. The foreign term is adopted without any modification of form or meaning
e.g. Engl. computer Rom. computer; Fr. caf Engl. caf
2. The form of the foreign term is adapted to the specificity of the language into
which it is introduced
e.g. Engl. meeting Span. Mitin; Engl. sandwich Rom. sandvis
3. The meaning of the foreign term is modified in the language in which it is
introduced
e.g. Engl. training Rom. trening;
4. The constituent parts of the term in the source-language are translated word-
for-word into the target-language => linguistic calque (calquer in French = to
copy)
e.g. Germ. Ubermensch Engl. Superman; Engl. pacemaker Germ.
Schrittmacher; Engl. forget-me-not Rom. nu-ma-uita
TERMINOGRAPHY definition
= the lexicography of specialized languages
= the process of recording, describing and
including terms in a system
 TERMINOGRAPHY brief
history
1900 1932 A. Schlemann wrote the
Illustrated Technical Dictionary, which
covered 17 technical fields in 6 languages
1968 E. Wuster designed the first
computerized database of technical terms,
entitled Machine Tools an Inter-lingual
Dictionary of Basic Concepts
 TERMINOGRAPHICAL DATA
COLLECTION
= a vocabulary (i.e. word list), glossary,
dictionary or terminological database
The basic unit of a terminological data
collection is the ITEM, which consists of
terminographical data.
The data may be ordered alphabetically or
systematically.
 ALPHABETICAL ORDER VS.
SYSTEMATIC ORDER
The alphabetical order is term-oriented and
meant to facilitate the use of glossaries or
dictionaries, but it cannot properly render
the relationships between concepts.
The systematic order is focused on the
concepts and the relationships between
them, not on the terms themselves. It
mostly uses the criterion of subdivision (i.e.
genus species)
 VOCABULARIES/ WORD
LISTS
= lists of terms used in a specific field or sub-
domain
The terms are not necessarily placed in
alphabetical order, but according to the concepts
they designate
- concept-oriented items (i.e. placed in a classified
order, according to a system of concepts)
e.g. computer hardware processor storage
device
 GLOSSARIES
= lists of terms, together with their
equivalents in other languages
- term-oriented (i.e. the terms are placed in
alphabetical order)
 DICTIONARIES
= collections of terms, together with their definitions,
synonyms, equivalents in other languages etc.
- monolingual, bilingual or multi-lingual
- specialized according to the:
Field (technical, medical etc.)
Register (regionalisms, slang etc.)
Axis of time (archaisms vs. neologisms)
The nature of entries (lexical vs. encyclopedic)
Term relationships (synonyms, antonyms, homonyms,
paronyms etc.)
Arrangement of entries (alphabetical order term-
oriented vs. systematic order concept-oriented)
 ITEMS
ITEM = the smallest complete unit of a
terminographical data collection (i.e.
vocabulary/word list, glossary, dictionary)
It corresponds to the TERM RECORD in
computerized databases.
It must contain certain terminological
information.
 TERMINOLOGICAL
INFORMATION
Terminological data are:
1) Linguistic symbols, which represent the concepts in the
form of terms, graphic or letter symbols (e.g. carbon
dioxide = CO2; trinitrotoluene = TNT)
2) Linguistic descriptions, which describe the content of
concepts in the form of their characteristics, by means of
a definition or explanation that may include illustrations
and examples (e.g. carbon dioxide = a colourless,
odourless, incombustible gas)
3) Symbols, which indicate the relationships of a concept to
other concepts of a given conceptual field (e.g. CO2, O2,
N = gases in the terrestrial atmosphere)
 COMPULSORY TERMINOLOGICAL
INFORMATION
= a basic set of data that any terminological entry should include:
1. Entry term
2. Subject code (=ISO) the number of the standard which the term
belongs to
3. Field/domain
4. Grammatical category
5. Context
6. Definition
7. Source of definition
8. Synonyms (if there are any)
9. Equivalents (if it is a bilingual or multi-lingual glossary or dictionary)
10.Observations (restrictions of use, illustrations, examples)
 DATABASES
EURODICAUTOM/ IATE
(www.iate.europa.eu) = the terminological
database of the E.U.
TERMIUM (www.termiumplus.gc.ca) = the
terminological French-English database of
the Canadian government
STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN TERM DATABASES
1. Type of entry: word vs. phrase
2. Context: Some databases provide the
contexts in which the term may be found,
but others dont
3. Number of languages: bilingual vs. multi-
lingual