24 Bio 167

Structural and functional adaptations
contribute to prokaryotic success
Earths first organisms were prokaryotes

Most prokaryotes are unicellular, although
some species form colonies
Most prokaryotic cells are 0.55 m, much
smaller than the 10100 m of many
eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cells have a variety of shapes
The three most common shapes are
spheres (cocci), rods (bacilli), and spirals
Cell-Surface Structures
An important feature of nearly all

prokaryotic cells is their cell wall, which
maintains cell shape, protects the cell, and
prevents it from bursting in a hypotonic
environment
Eukaryote cell walls are made of cellulose
or chitin
Bacterial cell walls contain
peptidoglycan, a network of sugar
polymers cross-linked by polypeptides
Archaea contain polysaccharides and
proteins but lack peptidoglycan
Scientists use the Gram stain to classify
bacteria by cell wall composition
Gram-positive bacteria have simpler
walls with a large amount of peptidoglycan
Gram-negative bacteria have less
peptidoglycan and an outer membrane
A polysaccharide or protein layer called a
capsule covers many prokaryotes
Some prokaryotes have fimbriae, which
allow them to stick to their substrate or
other individuals in a colony
Motility
Many bacteria exhibit taxis, the ability to

move toward or away from a stimulus
Chemotaxis is the movement toward or
away from a chemical stimulus
Most motile bacteria propel themselves by
flagella
The flagella of prokaryotes and eukaryotes
contain different proteins and likely
evolved independently
Video: Prokaryotic Flagella (Salmonella typhimurium)
Internal Organization and DNA
Prokaryotic cells lack complex

compartmentalization
Some prokaryotes do have specialized
membranes that perform metabolic functions
These are infoldings of the plasma membrane
The prokaryotic genome has less DNA than
the eukaryotic genome
Most of the genome consists of a circular
chromosome
The chromosome is not surrounded by a
membrane; it is located in the nucleoid
region
Some species of bacteria also have smaller
rings of DNA called plasmids
There are some differences between
prokaryotes and eukaryotes in DNA
replication, transcription, and translation
These allow us to use some antibiotics to
inhibit bacterial growth without harming
ourselves
Reproduction and Adaptation
Prokaryotes reproduce quickly by binary fission and can

divide every 13 hours
Key features of prokaryotic reproduction:
They are small
They reproduce by binary fission
They have short generation times
Many prokaryotes form metabolically inactive
endospores, which can remain viable in harsh
conditions for centuries
Diverse nutritional and metabolic adaptations
have evolved in prokaryotes
Prokaryotes can be categorized by how

they obtain energy and carbon
Phototrophs obtain energy from light
Chemotrophs obtain energy from
chemicals
Autotrophs require CO2 as a carbon source
Heterotrophs require an organic nutrient
to make organic compounds
The Role of Oxygen in Metabolism
Prokaryotic metabolism varies with respect

to O2
Obligate aerobes require O2 for cellular
respiration
Obligate anaerobes are poisoned by O2
and use fermentation or anaerobic
respiration
Facultative anaerobes can survive with
or without O2
Nitrogen Metabolism
Nitrogen is essential for the production of

amino acids and nucleic acids
Prokaryotes can metabolize nitrogen in a
variety of ways
In nitrogen fixation, some prokaryotes
convert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to
ammonia (NH3)
Bacteria
Bacteria include the vast majority of prokaryotes

familiar to most people
Archaea
Archaea share certain traits with bacteria and
other traits with eukaryotes
Some archaea live in extreme
environments and are called
extremophiles
Extreme halophiles live in highly saline
environments
Extreme thermophiles thrive in very hot
environments
Methanogens live in swamps and
marshes and produce methane as a waste
product
Methanogens are strict anaerobes and are
poisoned by O2
In recent years, genetic prospecting has
revealed many new groups of archaea
Some of these may offer clues to the early
evolution of life on Earth
Chemical Recycling
Prokaryotes play a major role in the recycling of
chemical elements between the living and nonliving
components of ecosystems
Chemoheterotrophic prokaryotes function as
decomposers, breaking down dead organisms and
waste products
Prokaryotes can sometimes increase the availability
of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium for plant
growth
Prokaryotes can also immobilize or decrease the
availability of nutrients
Ecological Interactions
Symbiosis is an ecological relationship in

which two species live in close contact: a
larger host and smaller symbiont
Prokaryotes often form symbiotic
relationships with larger organisms
In mutualism, both symbiotic organisms
benefit
In commensalism, one organism benefits
while neither harming nor helping the other in
any significant way
In parasitism, an organism called a
parasite harms but does not kill its host
Parasites that cause disease are called
pathogens
Prokaryotes have both
beneficial and harmful
impacts on humans
Human intestines are home to 5001,000
species of bacteria
Many of these are mutalists and break down
food that is undigested by our intestines
Prokaryotes cause about half of all human
diseases
For example, Lyme disease is caused by a
bacterium and carried by ticks
Pathogenic prokaryotes typically cause
disease by releasing exotoxins or endotoxins
Exotoxins are secreted and cause disease
even if the prokaryotes that produce them
are not present
Endotoxins are released only when bacteria
die and their cell walls break down
Prokaryotes in Research and Technology
Experiments using prokaryotes have led to

important advances in DNA technology
For example, E. coli is used in gene cloning
For example, Agrobacterium tumefaciens is
used to produce transgenic plants
Bacteria can now be used to make natural
plastics
Prokaryotes are used to remove pollutants
from the environment (bioremediation)
Bacteria can be engineered to produce
vitamins, antibiotics, and hormones
Bacteria are also being engineered to
produce ethanol from waste biomass

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24 Bio 167

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Structural and functional adaptations

contribute to prokaryotic success

Earths first organisms were prokaryotes

An important feature of nearly all

Many bacteria exhibit taxis, the ability to

Prokaryotic cells lack complex

Prokaryotes reproduce quickly by binary fission and can

Prokaryotes can be categorized by how

Prokaryotic metabolism varies with respect

Nitrogen is essential for the production of

Bacteria include the vast majority of prokaryotes

Symbiosis is an ecological relationship in

Experiments using prokaryotes have led to

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