Chapter 1

Introduction to
Statistics

8/28/2017 Footer Text 1

 WHAT IS STATISTICS?

Definition
Statistics is the science of planning studies and
experiments; obtaining data; and then
organizing, summarizing, presenting, analyzing,
interpreting, and drawing conclusions based on
the data.

2
 TYPES OF STATISTICS
1. Descriptive Statistics
2. Inferential Statistics

3
 TYPES OF STATISTICS
Descriptive statistics includes statistical
procedures that we use to describe the
population we are studying. The data could be
collected from either a population or a sample
but the results help us organize and describe
data. Descriptive statistics can only be used to
describe the group that is being studying. That
is, the results cannot be generalized to any
larger group.
4
 TYPES OF STATISTICS

Inferential statistics is concerned with making

predictions or inferences about a population
from observations and analyses of a sample.
That is, we can take the results of an analysis
using a sample and can generalize it to the
larger population that the sample represents. In
order to do this, however, it is imperative that
the sample is representative of the group to
which it is being generalized.
5
 Population
A population is the total set of individuals, groups,
objects, or events that the researcher is studying.
For example, if we were studying employment patterns of
recent Malaysia university graduates, our population
would likely be defined as every university student who
graduated within the past one year from any university
across the Malaysia.

A parameter is a numerical value that states something

about the entire population being studied.
Example: A parameter could be their average salary.

8/28/2017 Footer Text 6

 Sample
A sample is a relatively small subset of people, objects,
groups, or events, that is selected from the population.
Instead of surveying every recent university graduate in
Malaysia, which would cost a great deal of time and
money, we could instead select a sample of recent
graduates, which would then be used to generalize the
findings to the larger population.

A statistic is a numerical value that states something

about a sample.
Example: The average salary of 100 students would be
a statistic.

8/28/2017 Footer Text 7

The population is

A. A collection of observations.

B. A collection of methods for planning studies and

experiments.

C. The complete collection of all elements.

D. A subcollection of members drawn from a larger

group.
 Variables, data & experiment
Variable: A characteristic about each individual
element of a population or sample.
Example: temperature, height, weight, cost and gender.
Data (singular): The value of the variable associated
with one element of a population or sample. This
value may be a number, a word, or a symbol.
Data (plural): The set of values collected for the
variable from each of the elements belonging to the
sample.
Experiment: A planned activity whose results yield a
set of data.
8/28/2017 Footer Text 9
 Types of variables
Two kinds of variables:
Qualitative, or Attribute, or Categorical, Variable: A
variable that categorizes or describes an element of a
population.
Note: Arithmetic operations, such as addition and
averaging, are not meaningful for data resulting from a
qualitative variable.
Quantitative, or Numerical, Variable: A variable that
quantifies an element of a population.
Note: Arithmetic operations such as addition and
averaging, are meaningful for data resulting from a
quantitative variable.
 Example
Identify each of the following examples as attribute qualitative
(categorical) or quantitative (numerical) variables.

1. The amount of gasoline pumped by the next 10 customers at

the SHELL pump station. (quantitative)
2. The color of the baseball cap worn by each of 20 students.
(qualitative)
3. The length of time to complete a mathematics homework
assignment. (quantitative)
4. The state in which each truck is registered when stopped and
inspected at a weigh station. (qualitative)
 Two Types of Quantitative Variables

1. Discrete - If the Q variable is a set of isolated points

on the number line.
(i.e., its a number but it only comes in certain
values)
2. Continuous - If the Q variable forms an entire
interval along the number line.
(i.e., its a number & it can be any value).

12
 Example

Identify of the following as qualitative/categorical or

quantitative. If quantitative, continuous or discrete?
1) Length of a pen? Quantitative, Continuous
2) Type of pen? qualitative
3) Number of pens in box? Quantitative, Discrete
4) Maker of pen? Qualitative
5) Flow of ink in ml/sec? Quantitative, Continuous
6) Color of pens ink? Qualitative

13
Example: A college dean is interested in learning about the average age
of faculty. Identify the basic terms in this situation.

The population is the age of all faculty members at the college.

A sample is any subset of that population. For example, we might select
10 faculty members and determine their age.
The variable is the age of each faculty member.
One data would be the age of a specific faculty member.
The data would be the set of values in the sample.
The experiment would be the method used to select the ages forming the
sample and determining the actual age of each faculty member in the
sample.
The parameter of interest is the average age of all faculty at the
college.
The statistic is the average age for all faculty in the sample.
Levels of Measurement
The Levels of Measurement

Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
 Why Is Level of Measurement
Important?

Helps you decide what statistical analysis

is appropriate on the values that were
assigned
Helps you decide how to interpret the
data from that variable
 Nominal Measurement
The values name the attribute
uniquely.
The value does not imply any ordering of
the cases, for example, jersey numbers in
football.
Even though player 32 has higher
number than player 19, you cant say
from the data that hes greater than or
more than the other.
 Ordinal Measurement
When attributes can be rank-ordered
Distances between attributes do not
have any meaning, for example, code
Educational Attainment as 0=less than
H.S.; 1=some H.S.; 2=H.S. degree;
3=some college; 4=college degree;
5=post college
Is the distance from 0 to 1 the same as 3 to
4?
 Interval Measurement
When distance between attributes has meaning,
for example, temperature (in Fahrenheit) --
distance from 30-40 is same as distance from
70-80
Note that ratios dont make any sense -- 80
degrees is not twice as hot as 40 degrees
(although the attribute values are).
 Ratio Measurement
Has an absolute zero that is meaningful
Can construct a meaningful ratio (fraction), for example,
number of clients in past six months
It is meaningful to say that ...we had twice as many clients in
this period as we did in the previous six months.
 EXAMPLE Determining the Level of Measurement of a
Variable
A study was conducted to assess student eating patterns in high
institutions in Malaysia. The study analyzed the impact of vending
machines and institution policies on student food consumption. A total
of 1088 students in 20 institutions were surveyed. Determine the level
of measurement of the following variables considered in the study.

a. Number of snack and soft drink vending machines. Ratio

b. Whether or not the institution has a closed campus policy during
lunch. Nominal
c. Class rank (Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, Senior). Ordinal
d. Number of days per week a student eats lunch. Ratio

1-22
The Hierarchy of Levels

Ratio Absolute zero

Interval Distance is meaningful

Ordinal Attributes can be ordered

Nominal Attributes are only named; weakest

8/28/2017 Footer Text 24