Utilizing Energy for

Life
CHAPTER 6
Objectives of the chapter

 Explain how cells carry our functions required to

sustain life
 Explain how photosynthetic organisms use light
energy to combine carbon dioxide and water to
form energy-rich compounds
 Trace the energy flow from the environment to
the cells
 Discuss how organisms obtain and utilize energy
 Understand that organisms require energy to
carry out functions required to sustain life
Introducing the Cell:
The Basic Unit Of Life
Development of Cell Theory
 1838- German Botanist, Matthias
Schleiden, concluded that all plant
parts are made of cells
 1839- German physiologist, Theodor
Schwann, who was a close friend of
Schleiden, stated that all animal
tissues are composed of cells.
Development of Cell Theory
1858- Rudolf Virchow, German
physician, after extensive study of
cellular pathology, concluded that
cells must arise from preexisting
cells.
The Cell Theory Complete

 The 3 Basic Components of the Cell

Theory were now complete:
 1. All organisms are composed of one or
more cells. (Schleiden & Schwann)(1838-
39)
 2. The cell is the basic unit of life in all
living things. (Schleiden &
Schwann)(1838-39)
 3. All cells are produced by the division
of preexisting cells. (Virchow)(1858)
Modern Cell Theory
 Modern Cell Theory contains 4 statements, in
addition to the original Cell Theory:
 The cell contains hereditary information(DNA)
which is passed on from cell to cell during cell
division.
 All cells are basically the same in chemical
composition and metabolic activities.
 All basic chemical & physiological functions are
carried out inside the cells.(movement,
digestion,etc)
 Cell activity depends on the activities of sub-
cellular structures within the cell(organelles,
nucleus, plasma membrane)
 CELL
 The basic unit of life. The building block of life
 The smallest unit on earth that can posses life
 Human body consists of more than 100 trillion cells
 Consists primarily of (C, O2, H, N ) smaller amount of
(Fe, Na, K)
 A living cell is 60 % water bathed in interstitial fluid.
 It has everything it needs to maintain its life, to survive
 It has DNA
 It can gather source of energy
 It can extract energy from a source
 It can use that energy for its metabolism
 Note:

 All cells of a living organism, no matter how

different their looks and functions are from each
other, have identical DNA’s, thus identical
genes.
 But why are these cells different in structure and
function if they have the same DNA’s?
 That’s because the unique internal milieu of each type
of cell, which includes the presence of endemic
enzymes and other substances, only select certain
genes in the DNA to be activated inside it.
Prokaryotic cells vs eukaryotic
cells
 They are classification of cells based on
complexity
 Prokaryotic cells
 Simplest kind of cell
 Very few organelles  DNA, ribosomes and
cytosol only
 Bacteria and archaicians are prokaryotes
 Eukaryotic cells
 More complex than prokaryotes
 With many organelles and with nucleus
 The DNA is inside the nucleus of the cell
 Protists, plants, animals and fungi are eukaryotes
Plant cell vs animal cell
 Plant cell or animal cell?

Plant cells Animal cells

More regular in shape Less regular in shape

Generalized Cell Major Parts

cytoplasm

Cell membrane
Nucleus
 Generalized Cell: organelles in the
cytoplasm
Centrioles
Ribosomes
Mitochondria
Lysosomes

Golgi complex

Rough Endoplasmic
Smooth E.R. Reticulum
The Nucleus

Nucleolus

Pores

Chromatin Threads
Nuclear
(Chromosomes)
Envelope
Organelles : Function :

Nucleus: Contains the DNA and produces RNA

Nucleolus: In nuclei where ribosomes are synthesized.
Nuclear Envelope: Membrane of lipids and proteins that
surrounds nucleus
Centrioles: structure that appears during mitosis(cell
division)
Mitochondria: Energy producers of the cell
Ribosomes: where proteins are assembled
 Organelles Function

Golgi Bodies: Packages Proteins

Chloroplasts: Involved in photosynthesis
Vacuoles: Store waste, nutrients, and water
Lysosome: Contains digestive enzymes, mostly in
animal cells
Endoplasmic Reticulum: Passageway that transports
proteins from the nucleus
Rough ER = covered in ribosomes, Smooth ER is not!
 Smooth ER  synthesizes fats
 While not exactly organelles, the
following are important parts of
the cells:

 Cell membrane: Semi-permeable lining that

surrounds the cell

 Cell Wall: Is a stiff non-living wall that surrounds

the cell membrane made of cellulose
 Cytoplasm: Jelly-like material surrounding the
organelles
 Analogy:
Cell = walled island community

 Cell wall = fortification  Ribosomes = assembly plants

 Cell membrane = wall  Golgi apparatus = logistic
center/ courier center
 Nucleus = command center
 Vesicles = packaged boxes
 DNA = library of book inside
the command center that  Vacuoles = storage facilities
contains plans  Lysosomes = engineered landfill
 Nuclear membrane =  Mitochondria = power plant
perimeter wall of the
command center  Chloroplast = solar farm
 Endoplasmic reticulum =  Cell membrane receptors = sea
highways and roads with ports,
factories along its sides
Manufacturing sites of different
biomolecules inside the cell

 Nucleic acid (DNA & RNA)  nucleus

 Proteins  ribosomes
 Fats  smooth endoplasmic reticulum
 Carbohydrates  stroma of chloroplasts
(for plants)
 Carbohydrates  smooth endoplasmic
reticulum and golgi apparatus (for
animals)
 actually, these carbohydrates were just absorbed
by animal cell, and modified in this organelle to suit
its need
The Nucleus

Nucleolus

Pores

Chromatin Threads
Nuclear
(Chromosomes)
Envelope
 THE NUCLEUS
 1. nuclear membrane –
double membrane that
bounds the nucleus;
selectively permeable
membrane since it contains
nuclear pores.
 Note: each membrane is a
double bilayer
 2. nucleoli – sites where
ribosomes are assembled.
 3. chromatin – present in
non- dividing cells, when a
cell is dividing to form two
daughter cells, the chromatin
threads coil and condense to
form a rodlike bodies called
chromosomes.
 NUCLEUS:FUNCTIONS
 The cell nucleus is a
remarkable organelle
because it forms the package
for our genes and their
controlling factors. It functions
to:
 Store genes on chromosomes
 Organize genes into
chromosomes to allow cell
division.
 Transport regulatory factors &
gene products via nuclear
pores
 Produce messages (
messenger Ribonucleic acid
or mRNA) that code for
proteins
 Produce ribosomes in the
nucleolus
 Organize the uncoiling of DNA
to replicate key genes
 PLASMA MEMBRANE

Comprised of complex lipids and

proteins, frequently combined with
carbohydrates
Phospholipid, amphipathic molecule
Selectively permeable (semi-
permeable)
Bilayer
Fluid, like the surface of a soap bubble
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
FUNCTION OF THE CELL MEMBRANE

Separate the living cell from the nonliving

environment – isolation & protection.
Play an active role in the movement of
substances into and out of the cell.
Sense and interact with the external
environment (Hormones/Growth Factors).
Maintain Structural and Chemical
relationship of cell.
 CYTOPLASM
 Cellular material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane
 Site of most cellular activities
 Has 3 major elements
1. cytosol – semitransparent fluid that suspends the elements.
2. Organelles – the metabollic machinery of the cell. inclusions –
3. chemical substances that may or not be present; most inclusions are
stored nutrients or cell products.)
Cytoplasmic organelles
 Are specialized cellular
compartments, each
performing its own
function to maintain the
life of the cell
Endoplasmic reticulum :
 Transport and delivery system
 comprised of tubules and canals
 (serves as mini-circulatory system because it provides a network
of channels for carrying substances (proteins)
 Folded membranes attached to nucleus
 Rough ER (because studded with ribosomes)
Initiates synthesis of proteins, transport of proteins to
Golgi (abundant in cells that export protein products.
(e.g pancreas cells produces enzymes to be
delivered to small intestines
Produced substances leave the ER mostly via vesicles
formed from ER membrane
 Smooth ER
Steroids& Lipid synthesis, detoxifies drugs
E.g (liver cells)
e.g (cells of the testes – produce steroid-based
hormones)
Endoplasmic Reticulum

Unit
Membrane

Ribosomes

Vesicles
forming
Rough vs. Smooth ER:

Ribosomes
Rough ER

Smooth ER
Golgi Apparatus:

 Sorting, modifying and Packaging center

 Processes and packages material made by ER
 Distributes material in sacs called vesicles
The Golgi Complex

Material Material Destined

Received for Export
From ER

TEM
Lysosomes

 Contain digestive enzymes

 Digest material engulfed by cell

 Digest and recycle damaged organelles

  “Powerhouse” of cell
Mitochondria  Produce energy (ATP).
 found in the cytoplasm of nearly
all eukaryotic cells.
 It is where aerobic metabolism
takes place.
 We refer to the process as aerobic
metabolism because it requires
constant removal of excess
electrons through the reduction of
oxygen.
 The most immediate purpose of
our respiratory and circulatory
systems is to deliver oxygen to
the tissues for use by
mitochondria, and to eliminate
carbon dioxide.
 Inhaling and exhaling is properly
called breathing, not respiration. The
consumption of oxygen by
mitochondria is called cellular
respiration, or simply respiration.
 The Mitochondrion

Outer
Membrane

Inner
Membrane
Matrix
Cristae
 Activity
organelle Analogy from a Explanation Song
community
Plasma
membrane
cytoplasm
nucleus
nucleolus
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi complex
ribosomes
mitochondria
Lysosome
vacuoles
cystoskeleton
PEROXISOMES

 Membranous sacs containing powerful oxydase

enzymes.
 Detoxifies a number of harmful or poisonous
substances including alcohol and formaldehyde.
(note: abundant in liver and kidney cells, which they
are active in detoxification.)
CENTRIOLES

 Paired, rod-shaped
 They lie close to the nucleus
 Directs the formation of mitotic spindle during cell
division.
 The Flow of Membrane
Destined for
Export
Lysosome

Golgi
Endoplasmic
Reticulum

Destined for
Golgi
Endomembrane system
 Cytoskeleton
 Protein fibers
 Cell shape
 Cell movement
 Cell division
 OTHER CELL STRUCTURES:

Cilia and
Movement of fluid, or
Flagella
locomotion
 Two types
 Cilia: shorter but more
 flagella: longer but fewer
Specializations
 A. Microvilli- finger-like
projections; increase the
cell’s surface area.
 Cell junctions- hold cells
together; allow for
communication between
cells.
 B. MEMBRANE JUNCTION
 Tight junction: “Zip-
lock” seal between
cells
 Prevents fluid from
leaking between cells
 Between cells of
bladder and
intestines
 Anchoring junction (desmosomes)
 Spot-weld between
cells .
 Prevents cells from
being pulled apart.
 Cells in skin.
 Gap junction
 Protein channels
 Allow for
communication
between cells
 Heart muscle cells
CELL PHYSIOLOGY

 In order for a cell to stay alive, a cell

must exchange materials such as food
and wastes in the environment, in one
way or the other, these materials must
cross the cell membrane.

 E.g – water – can go in and out freely

---large molecules (proteins and carbohydrates
cannot )
---- charge ions cannot
 Passive Transport Processes

Movement along a
concentration agent
No energy is
required

NOTE: inside the cell-

intracellular fluid.
Outside –
extracellular(interstiti
al fluid)
Diffusion

 Movement of particles
from an area of high
concentration to an
area of low
concentration.
 (e.g) O2 inhaled – air
passes through the cells
lining the air sacs of the
lungs --- bloodstream ---
- transported
throughout the
body.(free
energy/kinetic energy)
Osmosis

 Net diffusion of water through

a selectively permeable
membrane. ( water will move
from an area with more water
present to an area with less
water.)
 E.g (cells lining the intestine---
absorb water from digested
food)-----these cells absorbed
salts and water follows salt
into the cells
 Kidneys
 Facilitated diffusion
Facilitate (help or assist)
higher----lower
concentration)
Cells---glucose (for
energy production)
Glucose can’t diffuse----
transporter-----carrier
enzyme
Filtration

 Water and solutes are forced through a

membrane by fluid or hydrostatic pressure
(kidneys-when water and dissolved waste
are force out of blood vessels and into
kidney tubules by blood pressure)
 B.P– --created by pumping of heart ---blood
flows from capilaries----plasma and
dissolved materials----surrounding tissues

 Passive process
Active processes

 Using ATP (energy) to move substances across the

membrane from low concentration to high
concentration.
 Movement against the concentration agent
Solute pumping

Active transport of
solute across
membrane
Diffusion channels
requires ATP
NOTE: PISO
Bulk Transport

 Transport of large particles and fluid droplets using

vesicles of plasma membrane
 Uses ATP (energy)
Endocytosis

Endocytosis -
bulk transport
into cell
 Exocytosis -
bulk transport
out of cell
Now, let us test if a cell
can perform all 7
processes of life…
Can a cell move?

Yes, a single-celled organism

can move
Flagella
Cilia
Pseudopods
Can a cell reproduce?
 Yes, cells divide to produce daughter cells. Part
of reproduction is DNA replication, so that its
copy may be passed on to the daughter cells
 Binary fission  bacteria
 Mitosis  somatic cells (asexual reproduction)
 Meiosis  germ body cells (sexual
reproduction)
Can a cell sense its
environment?
 Yes, a single-celled organism can
sense, and respond, to the changes
in its environment
Cilia for sensing the movement of
fluids around it
Cell membrane has receptor
proteins and recognition proteins
that it can use to respond and
react to any substance or particle
in the vicinity
 Can a cell gather food
(nutrition)?

 Yes, a single-celled organism can do that using different transport

systems
 Diffusion, both simple and facilitated
 Diffusion is the movement of substances from portion of lower
concentration to portion of higher concentration
 Facilitated diffusion  diffusion that needs a carrier molecule
 Passive and active transport
 Passive transport  transport system in cells that doesn’t need
consumption of energy. Example: diffusion
 Active transport  energy consuming transport system in cells.
Example: ion pumps
 Endocytosis
 It is the engulfing of substances by a cell
Can a cell excrete?
 Of course, a cell has transport
systems it can use to remove wastes
Diffusion, simple and facilitated
Through endoplasmic reticulum,
golgi apparatus, vesicle system
Through lysosome,
Exocytosis
It is the fusion of vesicle
membrane of a cell to its
surface membrane and
subsequent expulsion of vesicle
to the surrounding.
 Can a cell respire?
 In cytosol  glycolysis. First level of energy
extraction. All kinds of cells use this to
extract energy from sugar
 In mitochondria  oxidative
phosphorylation. 2nd level of energy
extraction. It is an oxygen gas driven
extraction of energy that takes place
inside mitochondria. Cells w/out
mitochondria cannot use this kind of
energy extraction
 In chloroplasts  photosynthesis. Cells with
chloroplasts “capture” the energy of the
sun and store it as chemical energy within
special substances for future utilization.
Can a cell incorporate substances
it takes in to become part of itself
(growth)?
Plant cell
Utilizes CO2 and H2O from
surrounding to produce
carbohydrates w/c become part
of itself
Animal cell
Uses amino acids it takes in from
surrounding to produce proteins
that become part of itself
Our verdict: yes, a single
cell can live on its own

That is why a cell is the smallest unit

that is capable of possessing life
Proof?

Unicellular organisms 
single cells that live on their
own

Examples are given on the next 3

slides
Chloroplasts

Flagellum

EUGLENA
Paramecium Anatomy
Amoeba Anatomy
CELL AND ENERGY
 WHERE DO CELLS GET THEIR
ENERGY?
CO2

PHOTO
SYNTHESIS
BIOMOLE
CULE
BIOMOLE
CULE ATP

PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL

H2O

Biomolecules  energy rich substances

 What Is ATP?
“readily available energy enclosed in
a molecule”

Adenosine Triphosphate

Organic molecule containing high-

energy Phosphate bonds

Copyright Cmassengale
 Chemical Structure of ATP

High energy Adenine Base (the “head”)

phosphate
bonds

3 Phosphates
(the “tail”) Ribose Sugar (the “body”)
What Does ATP Do for You?

It supplies YOU with ENERGY!

Copyright Cmassengale
 How Do We Get Energy From ATP?

By breaking
the high-
energy
bonds
between the
last two
phosphates
in ATP
Copyright Cmassengale
 PART II

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Explain how photosynthetic organisms use

light energy to combine carbon dioxide
and water to form energy-rich compounds
Energy can be transformed from one
form to another
FREE ENERGY
(available for work)
vs.
HEAT
(not available for work)
 Energy flow

generator

Power plant

The light of the bulbs we use at home is produced by the

electricity from powerplants whose energy came from the
rotating turbines, whose motion came from the flow of water,
which came from the rainfall, and the rainfall is caused by the
evaporation of water brought about by the energy of the sun
THE SUN: MAIN SOURCE OF
ENERGY FOR LIFE ON EARTH

And I am
not a sun
worshipper
There are living organisms, called autotrophs, that can
absorb the energy of the sun and store it as energy-rich
carbohydrates through the process called
photosynthesis. This process happens in the chloroplasts
of the cells of autotrophs

These carbohydrates are released from chloroplasts to the

cytosol of autotrophic cells. In the cytosol, carbohydrates
are broken down to produce energy in the form of ATP.
Further production of ATP happens inside the mitochondria
using oxygen. The excess biomolecules, on the other
hand, are stored in fruits or in roots

The rest of the living organisms get their energy

requirement from these energy-rich biomolecules
produced and stored by the autotrophs
 Inside Plant cell
 Chloroplasts  producers of food
 Cytosol & mitochondria  consumers of food

cytosol
Stage 1 Stage 2 energy
chloro energy mitochondria
food extraction
plast extraction

storage
 Inside Animal cell
 No organelle to produce food
 Food should come from outside the cell
 Cytosol & mitochondria  consumers of food

cytosol
Stage 1 Stage 2 energy
food energy mitochondria
extraction
extraction

storage
 THE BASICS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• Almost all plants are photosynthetic autotrophs, as
are some bacteria and protists
– Autotrophs generate their own organic matter through
photosynthesis
– Sunlight energy is transformed to energy stored in the
form of chemical bonds

(c) Euglena (d) Cyanobacteria

(b) Kelp
(a) Mosses, ferns, and
flowering plants
Light Energy is Harvested by
Plants & Other
Photosynthetic Autotrophs

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2

 What stuff is visible light
made of?
 Visible light is a mixture of electromagnetic radiations (EMR) of
different, albeit close, energies.
 As radiation, it travels in the form of waves. So it has wavelength,
that is the length of each wave. The greater the wavelength, the
bigger are the waves of EMR
 The number of waves of EMR that comes to us per unit of time, say
per second, is called the frequency of EMR. If an EMR has bigger
waves, then only few waves can be squeezed into a particular unit
of time, hence lower frequency. That is, wavelength is inversely
related to frequency.
 The frequency of an EMR is directly related its energy. The higher its
frequency is, the higher is its energy.
 The colors of the visible light—ROYGBIV—represent the different
frequencies of EMR that make up the visible light
 Red has the biggest waves, hence lowest frequency. Wavelength
decreases and frequency increases as we go from left to right of
the ROYGBIV.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
and Visible Light
Gamma Infrared &
rays X-rays UV White light Microwaves Radio waves

Increasing wavelength, decreasing frequency

Visible light

Wavelength (nm)
 Gamma X-rays UV Micro- Radio
Infrared waves waves
rays

Visible light

Wavelength (nm)

Different wavelengths of visible light are

seen by the human eye as different
colors.
When visible light
strikes on a substance,
that substance absorbs
some wavelengths and
rejects some.

The color you see of an

object is the wavelength
rejected by the object. It is
reflected to you, that’s why
you see the color
So why are plants green?

Transmitted/reflected light

Because the
chlorophyll substance
in plants rejects the
green color, so it is
reflected to us and we
see plants as green
 WHY ARE PLANTS GREEN?

Plant Cells
have Green
Chloroplasts
The thylakoid
membrane of the
chloroplast is
impregnated with
photosynthetic
pigments (i.e.,
chlorophylls, carotenoids).
 THE COLOR OF LIGHT SEEN IS THE
COLOR NOT ABSORBED

 Chloroplasts absorb light

energy and convert it to
chemical energy
Rejected
Light color

Absorbed
colors

Transmitted
color
How do plants absorb
wavelengths of visible light?

Why do plants absorb these

wavelengths?
 AN OVERVIEW OF
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Photosynthesis is the process by which autotrophic organisms use
light energy to make sugar and oxygen gas from carbon dioxide
and water
 Composed of two parts:
 light-dependent reactions
 Light-independent reactions (calvin cycle)

Carbon
Water Glucose Oxygen
dioxide
gas
 2 parts of photosynthesis
Light dependent Light independent
CO2
H2O

Does not need

Needs sunlight ADP sunlight

Happens inside the Happens in the

thylakoid system of NADP stroma of
chloroplast chloroplast
Uses water as raw Uses carbon dioxide
material in order as raw material
to break it Produces
Produces oxygen gas carbohydrates using
ATP CO2
ATP producing ATP consuming
NADPH producing NADPH NADPH consuming

O2 Carb
 AN OVERVIEW OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The light reactions
convert solar Light
Chloroplast
energy to
chemical energy NADP
 Produce ATP & NADPH ADP
+P
Calvin
• The Calvin cycle makes thylakoid
cycle
sugar from carbon
dioxide
stroma
– ATP generated by the light
reactions provides the energy
for sugar synthesis
– The NADPH produced by the
light reactions provides the
electrons for the reduction of Light-dependent Light-
carbon dioxide to glucose reactions independent
reactions
 Chloroplasts: Sites of
Photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis
– Occurs in chloroplasts, organelles in
certain plants
– All green plant parts have chloroplasts and
carry out photosynthesis
• The leaves have the most chloroplasts
• The green color comes from chlorophyll in the
chloroplasts
• The pigments absorb light energy
 Photosynthesis occurs in
chloroplasts
 In most plants, photosynthesis occurs primarily in the
leaves, in the chloroplasts
 A chloroplast contains:
Two membranes: outer and inner
stroma, a fluid inside the inner membrane
grana, stacks of thylakoids inside the inner
membrane
 The thylakoids contain chlorophyll (and other
pigments)
Chlorophyll is the green pigment that captures light
for photosynthesis
 The location and structure of chloroplasts

Chloroplast
LEAF CROSS SECTION MESOPHYLL CELL
LEAF

Mesophyll

CHLOROPLAST Intermembrane space

Outer
membrane

Granum Inner
membrane
Grana Stroma Thylakoid
Stroma Thylakoid compartment
 Chloroplast Pigments
 Chloroplasts contain several pigments
 Chlorophyll A
 Chlorophyll B
 Carotenoids

Figure 7.7
Chlorophyll a & b
•Chl a has a methyl
group

•Chl b has a carbonyl

group

Porphyrin ring
delocalized e-

Phytol tail
Different pigments absorb
light differently

Portion of the
visible light not
absorbed
 What happens when molecules
absorb energy?
 Molecules are made of bonded atoms.
 Atoms in a molecule get excited when the
molecule absorbs energy
 When an atom gets excited (the process is
called excitation), some of its electrons “jump”
to a higher level. This state of atom, called
excited state, is not stable. So electrons will
eventually fall back to return to stability. This
process is called de-excitation
 Excitation of atom is energy absorbing process
while de-excitation is energy releasing process
 Excitation of Loss of energy due to heat
causes the photons of light to be
chlorophyll in a less energetic.

chloroplast Less energy translates into

longer wavelength.
e Excited
2 state Energy = (Planck’s constant) x
De-excitation (velocity of light)/(wavelength of
Heat
light)
Transition toward the red end of
Light the visible spectrum.
excitation Light
(fluorescence)
Photon

Ground
state
Chlorophyll
molecule

(a) Absorption of a photon

(b) fluorescence of isolated chlorophyll in solution

Photosystem  light (photon) receiver
Primary
electron acceptor

Photon
PHOTOSYSTEM
Reaction
center

Pigment
molecules
of antenna
 Photophosphorylation
 This is the production of ATP using the energy of
light
 Here, a phosphate group (P) is attached to
ADP to form ATP using light energy
 APP + P + light energy  APPP (or ATP)
 There are two kinds of photophosphorylation
 Cyclic photophosphorylation
Uses one photosystem
 Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
Uses two photosystems
a. The water splitting photosystem
b. The NADPH forming photosystem
Cyclic Photophosphorylation
Process for ATP generation associated with
some Photosynthetic Bacteria
Reaction Center => 700 nm
Noncyclic Photophosphorylation
Photosystem II regains electrons by splitting
water, leaving O2 gas as a by-product
Primary
electron acceptor

Primary
electron acceptor

Photons

Energy for
synthesis of

PHOTOSYSTEM I 
PHOTOSYSTEM II  water by chemiosmosis NADPH producing
splitting photosystem photosystem
 Two types of photosystems
cooperate in the light reactions

ATP
mill

Water-splitting NADPH-producing
photosystem photosystem
 Plants produce O2 gas by
splitting H2O
 The O2 liberated by photosynthesis is made from the
oxygen in water

H—O—H  ½ O2 + 2 H+ + e-
How the Light Reactions Generate ATP and NADPH

NADP
Primary
Energy electron
to make acceptor

3
Primary
electron
2
acceptor
Light

Light

Primary
electron
acceptor

Reaction-
1 center NADPH-producing
chlorophyll photosystem

Water-splitting
2 H + 1/ photosystem
2
In the light reactions, electron
transport chains generate ATP,
NADPH, & O2
 Two interconnected photosystems collect
photons of light and transfer the energy to
chlorophyll electrons
 The excited electrons are passed from the
primary electron acceptor to electron transport
chains
Their energy ends up in ATP and NADPH
 Chemiosmosis powers ATP
synthesis in the light reactions
 The electron transport chains are arranged with
the photosystems embedded in the thylakoid
membranes and pump H+ to the thylakoid
compartment through that membrane
The flow of H+ back to the stroma through the
membrane is harnessed by ATP synthase to
make ATP
In the stroma, the H+ ions combine with NADP+
to form NADPH
Chemiosmosis – pumping of ions (in this case hydrogen ions)
from lower concentration to higher concentration through a
barrier to create higher potential energy condition in the
system, then releasing back the ions to produce work (in this
case, the formation of ATP).
  The production of ATP by chemiosmosis in
photosynthesis

Thylakoid
compartment
(high H+) Light Light

Thylakoid
membrane

Antenna
molecules

Stroma ELECTRON TRANSPORT

(low H+) CHAIN

PHOTOSYSTEM II PHOTOSYSTEM I ATP SYNTHASE

These are what take
place in the light
dependent reactions
of photosynthesis…
 A Photosynthesis Road Map

Chloroplast

Light
Stroma

NADP
ADP
+P
Stack of Calvin
thylakoids cycle

Sugar used for

 Cellular respiration
 Cellulose
 Starch
Light-dependent  Other organic compounds
reactions
These are what take
place in the light
independent
reactions of
photosynthesis…
 Summary
Light dependent Light independent
reactions reactions

 Happens in the  Happens in the stroma

thylakoid  Raw materials: CO2
membrane
 Main Products:
 Raw materials: carbohydrates
H2O & energy
from sun  By-products: ADP, P
and NADP
 Main Product:
ATP, NADPH  Also called carbon-
fixing rxn or calvin
 By-product: O2 cycle
These are the new
things I learned
about
photosynthesis…
METABOLISM
 Metabolism
 Encompasses all chemical processes taking place in a
living organism
 Two types of pathways of metabolism: catabolism and
anabolism
 Includes:
 Breaking down of complex molecules into simpler
ones, usually with the release of energy (catabolism)
 Building up of complex molecules from simple building
blocks, usually with the use of outside energy
(anabolism)
 Breaking down of molecules to extract energy from it
(catabolism)
 Synthesis of important molecules from precursors
(anabolism)
 Catabolism or anabolism?
1. Digestion 1. catabolism
2. Formation of glycogen 2. Anabolism
polysaccharide in the liver by
linking glucose units together 3. Anabolism
3. Formation of ATP from ADP and P 4. Catabolism
4. Production of 2 pyruvate 5. Anabolism
molecules from one molecule of 6. Anabolism
glucose
7. Anabolism
5. Protein synthesis
8. Anabolism
6. Formation of C6H12O6 from CO2
& H2O via photosynthesis
7. Production of NADH from NAD
and H
8. DNA replication
 Comparing catabolism vs
anabolism
catabolism anabolism
 From complex to simple  From simple to complex
 Usually energy releasing  Usually energy consuming
process process
 From higher free energy to  From lower free energy to
lower free energy higher free energy
 Spontaneous (exergonic)  Non-spontaneous (endergonic)
 Convergent process  Often involves chemical
 A wide array of molecules
reductions using electron
(almost all complex) are donors (reduced coenzymes)
transformed into a few  Divergent process
common end products
(mostly simple ones)  A few precursors (mostly simple)
form a wide variety of complex
or polymeric products
CELLULAR
RESPIRATION
PART III
Cellular Respiration

the process by which energy is

released by the breakdown of
energy rich substances
It is a catabolic process
In contrast, photosynthesis is an
anabolic process
The purpose of cellular
respiration is to produce ATP

What is an
ATP? How
does it look
like?
 What Is ATP?
“readily available energy enclosed in
a molecule”

Adenosine Triphosphate

Organic molecule containing high-

energy Phosphate bonds

Copyright Cmassengale
 Chemical Structure of ATP

High energy Adenine Base (the “head”)

phosphate
bonds

3 Phosphates
(the “tail”) Ribose Sugar (the “body”)
What Does ATP Do for You?

It supplies YOU with ENERGY!

Copyright Cmassengale
 How Do We Get Energy From ATP?

By breaking
the high-
energy
bonds
between the
last two
phosphates
in ATP
Copyright Cmassengale
 What is the Process Called?
HYDROLYSIS (Adding H2O)

H 2O

Hydrolysis  the breaking of a chemical

bondby the addition of water into the structure
Copyright Cmassengale
 How Does That Happen?

An
Enzyme!

Copyright Cmassengale
 How is ATP Re-Made?

Easy! We just reverse the process

Another Enzyme is
used!

ATP Synthase
 The ADP-ATP Cycle

ATP
ATP-ase Synthase
7,300 cal of
7,300 cal of
energy
energy
released
absorbed

Copyright Cmassengale
When is ATP Made in the Body?

During a
Process
called
Cellular
Respiration
that takes
place in both
Plants &
Animals
Copyright Cmassengale
1. Organisms that cannot
produce their own food. Also
called consumers.

Heterotrophs
2. Which of the ff is not a raw
material in photosynthesis
process?

a. Carbon dioxide
b. Oxygen
c. Water
d. energy

Oxygen
3. The name of the 5-carbon sugar
which serves as the “body” of ATP

Ribose
4. How many calories of energy is
released when an ATP is broken to ADP
and P?

7,300 calories
5. What is the name of the enzyme
that breaks ATP into ADP and free
Phosphate group?

ATPase
6. What is the name of the enzyme
that reattaches ADP and free
Phosphate group to form ATP?

ATP Synthase
7. This refers to the inner membrane of
a chloroplast where the first stage—the
light dependent reaction—of
photosynthesis happens.

Thylakoid membrane system

8. Photosynthesis is divided into two
stages or reactions: the light-
dependent reaction, and the carbon
fixing reaction. What does
photosynthesis produce during its
second stage (called carbon-fixing
reaction)?

Sugar or carbohydrates
 9. In what stage of photosynthesis
does the production of ATP take
place?

a. Light-dependent reaction stage

b. Carbon-fixing reaction stage (also called light-independent
stage)
c. In both stages
d. None of the above, because ATP production happens after
photosynthesis

a. In light-dependent reaction
 10. The second stage of
photosynthesis, called carbon-
fixing reaction, happens in
what part of chloroplast?

In stroma, the fluid surrounding the

grana in the interior of chloroplast