Chapter 5

Information Gathering:
Unobtrusive Methods

Systems Analysis and Design

Kendall & Kendall
Sixth Edition
 Major Topics

• Sampling
• Quantitative document analysis
• Qualitative document analysis
• Observation
• STROBE
• Applying STROBE

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-2

 Sampling

• Sampling is a process of systematically

selecting representative elements of a
population.
• Involves two key decisions:
• Which of the key documents and Web sites
should be sampled.
• Which people should be interviewed or
sent questionnaires.

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-3

 Need for Sampling
The reasons systems analysts do
sampling are:
• Reducing costs.
• Speeding up the data-gathering process.
• Improving effectiveness.
• Reducing data-gathering bias.

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-4

 Sampling Design Steps
To design a good sample, a systems
analyst needs to follow four steps:
• Determining the data to be collected or
described.
• Determining the population to be sampled.
• Choosing the type of sample.
• Deciding on the sample size.

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-5

 Sample Size
The sample size decision should be
made according to the specific
conditions under which a systems
analysts works with such as:
• Sampling data on attributes.
• Sampling data on variables.
• Sampling qualitative data.

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-6

 Types of Sampling

• The four types of sampling are:

• Convenience.
• Purposive.
• Simple random.
• Complex random.

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-7

 Convenience Sampling

• Unrestricted, nonprobability samples

• Easy to arrange
• Most unreliable

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-8

 Purposive Sampling

• Based on judgment
• Analyst chooses group of individuals to
sample
• Based on criteria
• Nonprobability sample
• Moderately reliable

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-9

 Simple Random Sampling

• Based on a numbered list of the

population
• Each person or document has an equal
chance of being selected

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-10

 Complex Random Sampling

• The three forms are:

• Systematic sampling.
• Stratified sampling.
• Cluster sampling.

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-11

 Systematic Sampling

• Simplest method of probability sampling

• Choose every kth person on a list
• Not good if the list is ordered

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-12

 Stratified Sampling
Stratification is the process of :
• Identifying subpopulations or strata
• Selecting objects or people for sampling from
the subpopulation
• Compensating for a disproportionate number
of employees from a certain group
• Selecting different methods to collect data
from different subgroups.
• Most important to the systems analyst
Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-13
 Cluster Sampling

• Select group of documents or people to

study.
• Select typical groups that represent the
remaining ones.

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-14

 Deciding Sample Size for
Attribute Data
Steps to determine sample size are:
• Determine the attribute to sample.
• Locate the database or reports where the
attribute is found.
• Examine the attribute and estimate p, the
proportion of the population having the
attribute.

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-15

 Deciding Sample Size for
Attribute Data
Steps to determine sample size (continued)
• Make the subjective decision regarding the
acceptable interval estimate, i
• Choose the confidence level and look up the
confidence coefficient (z value) in a table
• Calculate σp, the standard error of the proportion
as follows: i

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-16

 Deciding Sample Size for
Attribute Data
Steps to determine sample size (continued)
• Determine the necessary sample size, n,
using thep(1-p)
following formula:

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-17

 Confidence Level Table

99% 2.58
98% 2.33
97% 2.17
96% 2.05
95% 1.96
90% 1.65
80% 1.28
50% .67

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-18

 Hard Data
In addition to sampling, investigation of
hard data is another effective method
for systems analysts to gather
information.

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-19

 Obtaining Hard Data
Hard data can be obtained by:
• Analyzing quantitative documents such as
records used for decision making.
• Performance reports.
• Records.
• Data capture forms.
• Ecommerce and other transactions.

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-20

 Qualitative Documents
Examine qualitative documents for the
following:
• Key or guiding metaphors.
• Insiders vs. outsiders mentality.
• What is considered good vs. evil.
• Graphics, logos, and icons in common
areas or Web pages.
• A sense of humor.
Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-21
 Analyzing Qualitative
Documents
Qualitative documents include:
• Memos.
• Signs on bulletin boards.
• Corporate Web sites.
• Manuals.
• Policy handbooks.

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-22

 Observation

• Observation provides insight on what

organizational members actually do.
• See firsthand the relationships that exist
between decision makers and other
organizational members.

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-23

 Analyst’s Playscript
• Involves observing the decision-makers
behavior and recording their actions
using a series of action verbs
• Examples:
• Talking.
• Sampling.
• Corresponding.
• Deciding.

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-24

 STROBE
STRuctured OBservation of the
Environment-- a technique for
observing the decision maker's
environment

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-25

 STROBE Elements
Analyzes seven environmental elements:
• Office location.
• Desk placement.
• Stationary equipment.
• Props.
• External information sources.
• Office lighting and color.
• Clothing worn by decision makers.

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-26

 Office Location

• Accessible offices
• Main corridors, open door
• Major traffic flow area
• Increase interaction frequency and informal
messages
• Inaccessible offices
• May view the organization differently
• Drift apart from others in objectives
Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-27
 Desk Placement

• Visitors in a tight space, back to wall,

large expanse behind desk
• Indicates maximum power position
• Desk facing the wall, chair at side
• Encourages participation
• Equal exchanges

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-28

 Stationary Office Equipment
File cabinets and bookshelves:
• If not present, person stores few
items of information personally.
• If an abundance, person stores
and values information.

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-29

 Props

• Calculators
• Personal computers
• Pens, pencils, and rulers
• If present, person processes data
personally

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-30

 External Information Sources

• Trade journals or newspapers indicate

the person values outside information.
• Company reports, memos, policy
handbooks indicate the person values
internal information.

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-31

 Office Lighting and Color

• Warm, incandescent lighting indicates:

• A tendency toward more personal
communication.
• More informal communication.
• Brightly lit, bright colors indicate:
• More formal communications (memos,
reports).

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-32

 Clothing

• Male
• Formal two piece suit - maximum authority
• Casual dressing (sport jacket/slacks) -
more participative decision making
• Female
• Skirted suit - maximum authority

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-33

 Anecdotal List with Symbols
• The five symbols used to evaluate how
observation of the elements of STROBE
compared with interview results are:
• A checkmark, the narrative is confirmed.
• An “X” means the narrative is reversed.
• An oval or eye-shaped symbol serves as a cue to
look further.
• A square means observation modifies the narrative.
• A circle means narrative is supplemented by
observation.

Kendall & Kendall © 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall 5-34