Introduction to Measurements

Definition Measurement is defined as the process of obtaining a

quantitative comparison between a predefined standard and an
unknown magnitude.

Requirements

• Standards must be accurately known

• Procedure & apparatus –commonly accepted & provable

Significance of measurement system

• Fundamental basis for R& D

• Measurement Is fundamental element of any process control

• Measurement is required for proper performance

• Forma basis of commerce.

 Fundamental Methods of Measurement

• Direct comparison with primary/ secondary standard.

• Indirect comparison through the use of calibrated

system.
 Generalized System of Measurement
• Stage I : Detector –transducer stage

• Stage II: Intermediate stage

• Stage III:Terminating stage

a. Relative displacement
b. Digital form
Generalized System of Measurement
Example of Generalized Measurement System

Tyre gauge for automobiles

Generalized Measurement System for
measuring the acceleration

Measurement of acceleration
 Objectives of metrology
• Establishing the units of measurements , reproducing these units in the
form of standards.

• Ensuring the uniformity of measurements.

• Developing the methods of measurements.

• Analyzing the accuracy of methods of measurements.

• Researching into the causes of measuring errors and eliminating these.

• To determine the measuring instrument capabilities and ensure that these

are adequate for their respective measurements.

• Preparation of designs for all gauges and special inspection fixtures.

 Fundamental measuring process

Measurand
(quantity to be measured)

Standard (known quantity) Process of

comparison
( measurement)

Result
 Role of Standards
• Standard is something that has been set up and established by
an authority as a rule for the measurement of weight, quality,
quantity etc.

• Industry , international trade , commerce, modern civilization

would be impossible without good system of standards.

Role of standards is to achieve

• Constant & repeatable measurements

• Support systems which make such measurements possible.

 Standards of length

• Primary standard-std of known dim.

• Improved materials & accurate measurement techniques.

• First- Imperial standard Yard-England.

• Second- International Prototype Meter- France.

• Material Length standards- metal alloys.

 Standards of Measurement

• Imperial Standard Yard

• International Prototype Meter

• Wavelength standard.
 Imperial Standard Yard

• Imperial units used in the United Kingdom and

related countries.

• used mainly in the United States, where they are

known as US customary units
• Ex. inch, foot, yard, mile.
Imperial Standard Yard
 Imperial Standard Yard
• 1-inch square cross section bronze bar (82% copper, 13%
tin, 5% zinc) and is 38 inches long.
• Two ½ inch dia & ½ inch deep holes with 1/2 inch diameter
gold plugs.
Gold plug lines kept at neutral axis
• Due to bending of the beam , neutral axis remains unaffected.
• Plug remains protected from accidental damage.
Yard is defined as the distance between two central transverse
lines on the plugs when
• the temperature of the bar is constant at 62 ºF.
• The bar is supported on rollers in a specified manner to
prevent flexure.
International Prototype Meter
 International Prototype Meter
• Established by International Bureau of Weights and
Measures in 1875.
• Length of meter is defined as the straight line distance
at 0◦ C between the centre portions of pure platinum –
iridium alloy of 102 cm total length and having a web
c/s as shown.
• This bar is kept at 0 ºC and under normal atmosphere
pressure
• Supported on two rollers of at least 1 cm diameter
symmetrically situated in the same horizontal plane.
• Distance between rollers is kept 589 mm – to give
min deflection.
• Web section – max rigidity, economy of costly
material.

Cross section of international prototype meter

 Meter over Yard

• Imperial standard Yard changed in length

• Yard was defined in terms of meter.
• 1 Yard=0.91439841m
• 1 Meter=39.37014 inches
 Disadvantages of Material Standards

• Influenced by effects of variation of environmental conditions.

• Required to be stored under security.

• Replica not available for use somewhere else.

• Not easily reproducible.

• Conversion factor required for changing to metric.

 Wavelength standard/ optical standard
• Working standard is derived from physical standard.

• Establishing size of working standard successive comparisons

to be made.

• Leads to high magnitude errors.

• Using wavelength of monochromatic light.

• Impossibility of producing pure monochromatic light

• Pure isotopes of natural elements-Cadmium 114, Krypton 86

& Mercury 198.-Possible sources of radiation.
Wavelength standard/Optical length standard

• General conference of weights & measures in 1960, Paris

• Monochromatic light is used as natural invariable unit of
length.
• This is reproducible standard of length, and the error of
reproduction can be of the order of 1 part in 100 million.
 Wavelength standard contd…
• Meter: is defined as equal to 1,650,763.73X
wavelengths of the orange red emission line in the
electromagnetic spectrum of the krypton -86 atom in
vacuum.

• Yard is defined as 1509458.35 wavelengths of orange

radiation in vacuum of krypton 86 isotope.

• 1 Yard=0.9144m

• Krypton 86 chosen as it produces sharply defined

interference lines.
 Advantages of Wavelength Standards

• Not influenced by effects of variation.

• Need not be stored / preserved.

• Easily reproducible.

• Used for comparative measurements of very high accuracy.

• Not subjected to destruction by wear and tear.

 Metre as of today
• Metre is defined as the length of the path travelled by light in
vacuum in 1/299 792 458 second.

• 1 yard = length of path travelled in 3*10-9 seconds.

 Airy points

Deflection in bars- errors in length caused by end faces not being parallel
 Airy points - contd…
• Distance between supports
1 *L
√ n2-1
n: no. of supports
L: length of bar
For simply supported beam 1 * L =0.577L
√ 3
• Distance of each support from end of bar=L-0.577L
2
• Bessel points :
• At points of min deflection ends sag so as to lift the centre & minimize central
deflection.
• Occurs when points of support are 0.554L.
 Difference between Airy points & Bessel
points
Airy points (end faces parallel) Bessel points (minimum deflection
points)

Sag permitted to pull ends of bar up with Ends allowed to sag to lift centre to
measuring plane. prevent deflection.

No deflection at ends. Ends deflected downwards.

Distance between supports =0.577L Distance between supports =0.554L

Distance between supports & sagging at Distance between supports & sagging at
center is more. center is less.

Suitable for length standards. Suitable for line standards.

Indicated on length bars above 150 mm. Not indicated on straight edges &
reference planes.
 Subdivision of standards
Primary standard
• In Paris.
• No direct application.
• Used after 10-20 years for comparison with secondary stds.

Secondary standards
• Kept in the custody of every country in laboratory.
• Close copies of primary stds (design , material, length)
• Used for comparison with tertiary stds.
• Safeguard against loss or destruction of primary stds.
 Subdivision of standards contd…
Tertiary standards
• Employed by NPL
• used in the industry, laboratory, workshops.
• True copies of secondary stds.
• Ref for comparison with working stds.

Working standards
• Used on the shop floor.
• Less in cost
• Lower grade material
• General application in metrology laboratories.
 Standards also classified as

• Reference standards

• Calibration standards

• Inspection standards

• Working standards
 Calibration
Calibration is a comparison of instrument
performance to standards of known accuracy.
Calibrations directly link customers' measurement
equipment to national and international standards.

Advantages of calibration
• accuracy in performing manufacturing operations,
• reduced inspection, and
• ensured quality products by reducing errors
in measurement.
 Line standards
Line standards: material standards, yard, meter rule
with divisions.
• Scales can be engraved

• Quick & easy to use

• Scale markings not subjected to wear

• No built in datum

• Scales are subjected to parallax error

• Magnifying lens/ microscope required.

 End Standards
• End standards: slip gauges , end bars, vernier
callipers etc.
• Highly accurate , precise.

• Measures only one dimension

• Subjected to wear

• Disadvantages:

• forming two actually parallel surfaces at ends

• Heat treat ends for stability.

 Comparison between Line stds and End stds
Characteristics Line standards End Standards
Principle Length -distance between as distance b/w two flat
distance b/w two lines parallel faces
Accuracy +/- 0.2 mm +/-0.001 mm
Ease & time of Quick & easy Requires skill & time
measurement consuming
Effect of wear No wear, may occur on leading Wear on their measuring
ends surfaces.
Alignment Cannot align with axis of Can align with axis of
measurement measurement
Manufacture & Simple and low cost Complex & high cost
cost
Parallel effect Subjected to parallax error Not subjected
Examples Scale Slip gauges, end bars,
micrometer
 End Bars / Length Bars
Characteristics:
• Measurement of larger sizes of work.
• Carbon steel round bar 20 mm Φ size range: 10 mm -
1200 mm.
• Hardened at ends ( 800 HV) & supported at Airy
points.
• Used in standardizing laboratories
Four grades of accuracy:
• Reference
• Calibration
• Inspection
• Workshop
 Definition & concepts
Accuracy is the closeness with which an instrument reading

approaches the true value of the quantity being measured.

Trueness to form : eg cylinder

Factors on which perfection of accuracy is attained

• Grade of product

• Classification of product

• Function of the surface concerned

accuracy=√(Repeatability)2+(systematic error)2

Higher accuracy –magnifying devices

Requirements of accurate measuring instruments
• Should possess requisite and constant accuracy
• Error should be eliminated
• Sources of inaccuracy eliminated
• Instrument should be calibrated
Factors affecting accuracy of measuring system
• Factors affecting calibration standards
• Factors affecting work piece
• Factors affecting inherent characteristics of instrument
• Factors affecting person
• Factors affecting environment
Factors affecting standard
• Coefficient of thermal expansion
• Internal calibration
• Elastic properties
• Stability with time
Factors affecting workpiece
• Cleanliness of workpiece
• Surface finish
• Defects on workpiece
Factors affecting inherent characteristics of instruments
• Adequate sensitivity
• Adequate consistency
• Good accuracy precision

Factors affecting person

• Skill and training methodology
• Selection of instruments and stds of measurements
• Altitude towards personal accuracy achievements

Factors affecting environment

• Temperature , humidity
• Clean surrounding
• Adequate illumination
Precision : it is a measure of reproducibility of the measurements

Given a fixed value of a quantity precision is a measure of degree

of agreement within a group of measurements

Accuracy can be improved but precision cannot.

Differences b/w accuracy and precision

 Definition & concepts
Sensitivity :rate of displacement of the indicating device of an
instrument wrt the measured quantity.

Ratio of scale spacing to scale division value

Ratio of magnitude of response (o/p signal) to magnitude of

quantity being measured (i/p signal).

If dial indicator has scale spacing of 1 mm and scale division 0.01

mm then sensitivity =1/0.01=100

It is also called amplification factor/ gearing ratio

Sensitivity has wide range of units
• Operation of resistance thermometers depends on change in
resistance to change in temperature
• Units: ohms/deg c
• i/p to o/p of electrical/ electronic equipment –gain
• Increase in displacement with optical and mechanical
instruments – amplification
Calibration : the procedure laid down for making adjusting or
checking a scale so that readings of an instrument or
measurement system conform to an accepted std .
• Graphical representation of calibration record is called
calibration curve.
• Curve relates std values of i/p or measurand to actual values of
o/p throughout operating range of instrument.
Threshold :if instrument i/p is increased very gradually from
zero , there will be some minimum value below which no o/p can
be detected . This min value defines threshold of instrument.

Threshold because of backlash

Loading effect: the incapability of the system to faithfully

measure , record/ control the i/p signal in undistorted form is
called loading effect.

Introduction of element into system extracts energy from system

–distorts original signal.
Hysteresis : is phenomenon which
depicts different o/p effects when
loading and unloading, whether it is
a mechanical / electrical or any
system.
Cause: all energy put to stressed
parts when loading is not reversible
upon unloading
Different values of o/p for same i/p
under increasing and decreasing
conditions.
Due to mechanical friction, slack
motion in bearings, elastic
deformation, magnetic & thermal
effects.
Drift :undesired change in o/p i/p relationship
over a period of time.
Causes :wear and tear, high stress developing at
some parts and contamination of primary sensing
elements.
• Checked by periodic inspection and
maintenance of instrument.
• Eg drift occurs in thermocouples due to
contamination of metal and change in atomic
structure.
Repeatability :is the ability of measuring instrument to repeat
same results for measurements for the same quantity , when
the measurement is carried out
• By same observer
• Within same instrument
• Under same conditions
• Without any change in location
Readability : susceptibility of a measuring device to have its
indications converted into a meaningful number.
Makes us easy to read the readings of instrument
Eg.micrometer is clearly readable than vernier because
graduation lines are clearly spaced.
Reproducibility :is consistency of pattern variation in
measurement that is closeness of agreement b/w the results of
measurements of the same quantity when measurement of
same quantity is carried out
• By different observer
• By different methods
• By different instruments
• By different conditions
• By different location and times
Linearity : is the characteristic of the instrument wherein the o/p
is linearly proportional to i/p.
• Essential because
• Conversion from scale reading to corresponding measured
value
• When instrument is part of a large data or control system,
linear behavior of part often simplifies the design and analysis
of whole system.
Response: faithfulness to purpose

System response : system response may be defined as an

evaluation of the system’s ability to faithfully transmit
and present all the pertinent information included in the
i/p signal and to exclude everything else.

Response characteristics:
• Frequency response
• Amplitude response
• Phase response
• Delay/ rise time.
Amplitude response:
• Is governed by system’s ability to treat all amplitudes uniformly.
• Eg i/p 5 - o/p 25 and i/p 10-o/p 50
• Poor amplitude response: discrepancy b/w design expectations and
actual performance.
• No system exists that is capable of faithfully responding over an
unlimited range of amplitudes.
• Eg amplitude response of 3 stage voltage amplifier suitable for
connecting strain gauge for measurement of strain.
Frequency response:
• Is governed by system's ability to treat all i/p frequencies
uniformly. If 100 Hz sine wave having i/p amplitude of 5 units is
fed into system, peak to peak o/p of 10 volts results.
• If 500 Hz sine wave i/p of 5 units amplitude would also result in a
10 units peak to peak o/p. Changing the frequency of i/p signal
should not alter the system’s o/p magnitude so long as the i/p
amplitude remains unchanged.
Phase response: important for complex waveforms
• Simple waveform: signal undergoes 360 deg phase shift-
amplitude from o/p signal not affected.-shape of cycle is
repetitive.
• Complex waveform: i/p signal complex – diff phase
relationships –each component diff phase distortion – o/p
signal totally distorted.
• Diagram
Delay/rise time:
• Another form of frequency response
• When stepped / instantaneous i/p is applied to a system the o/p
may lag.
• Time delay after the step is applied but before the proper o/p
magnitude is reached is known as delay/ rise time.
• It is the measure of systems ability to handle transients.
 Errors and types of errors
Error: is defined as the difference between measured and the
true value.
• E=x m- x true
• Types of errors
Bias errors (systematic errors) : are those errors which occur in
the same way each time a measurement is made.
• Scale reading 5% high
Precision errors (random errors) : are different for each
successive ,measurement but having an avg value of zero.
Eg mechanical friction/ vibration-fluctuates-distribution of
values.
 Classification of errors
Bias/systematic errors:

• Calibration errors-zero offset errors-scale errors-diagram

• Certain consistently recurring human errors

• Certain errors caused by defective equipment-

• Loading errors-influence of measurement procedure on system being tested.

• Limitation of system resolution

Precision / random errors:

• Certain human errors

• Errors caused by disturbances to equipment

• Errors caused by fluctuating experimental conditions

• Errors derived from insufficient measuring system sensitivity

Illegitimate errors: errors not expected to exist.

• Blunders and mistakes during an experiment

• Computational errors after an experiment

Errors that are sometimes bias errors and sometimes precision errors:

• Errors from instrument backlash, friction, hysteresis-galvanometer needle-

method of symmetry.

• Errors from calibration drift and variations in test or environmental

conditions-response varies with time.

• Errors resulting from variations in procedure or definition among

experiments.
 Sources of errors

• Noise

• Response time

• Design limitations: friction , resolving power

• Deterioration of measuring systems

• Environmental effects

• Errors in observation and interpretation

 Principle of Interchangeability

• Interchangeability: occurs when one part can be substituted for a similar

part which has been made to the drawing.
• Requires precise machines or processes whose process capability is equal
to or less than the manf tolerance allowed for the part.
Advantages :
Assembly time reduced.
Increased o/p with reduced production cost.
Division of work – specialization.
Production of mating components at diff places by diff operators.
Replacement of worn out , defective parts .
Cost of maintenance and shutdown period reduced.
 Zero interchangeability

• When components are made to suit.

• Components are fitted by a skilled mechanic often in a

fitting room .

• Subsequently, if a replacement is needed, it must also be

machined to suit and then fitted as above.
 Universal/Full interchangeability
• Parts drawn from any two altogether different sources for mating
purposes.

• Common stds followed by all.

• All stds traceable to a single source-international std.

• m/c with high process capability & high accuracy.

• Requires close supervision.

• m/c process capability =/< manf tolerance for the part

 Local interchangeability

• When all parts to be assembled are made in the same manf unit
by following local stds.

• Set of tools and gauges are made for components, that will
confirm to the required standard within the workshop.

• Local stds traceable to international stds