Embedded Systems Design: A Unified Hardware/Software Introduction

Embedded Systems Design: A Unified
Hardware/Software Introduction
Chapter 5 Memory
1
Outline
• Memory Write Ability and Storage Permanence

• Common Memory Types
• Composing Memory
• Memory Hierarchy and Cache
• Advanced RAM
Embedded Systems Design: A Unified 2

Hardware/Software Introduction, (c) 2000 Vahid/Givargis
Introduction
• Embedded system’s functionality aspects

– Processing
• processors
• transformation of data
– Storage
• memory
• retention of data
– Communication
• buses
• transfer of data

Memory: basic concepts
• Stores large number of bits m × n memory
…
– m x n: m words of n bits each
– k = Log2(m) address input signals m words …
– or m = 2^k words
– e.g., 4,096 x 8 memory:
n bits per word
• 32,768 bits
memory external view

• 12 address input signals
• 8 input/output data signals
r/w
2k × n read and write
• Memory access enable memory
– r/w: selects read or write A0

…
– enable: read or write only when asserted
Ak-1
– multiport: multiple accesses to different locations …
simultaneously
Qn-1 Q0

Write ability/ storage permanence
• Traditional ROM/RAM distinctions
permanence
Storage
– ROM Mask-programmed ROM Ideal memory
• read only, bits stored without power
OTP ROM
– RAM Life of
product
• read and write, lose stored bits without
power Tens of EPROM EEPROM FLASH
years
• Traditional distinctions blurred Battery Nonvolatile NVRAM
life (10
– Advanced ROMs can be written to years)
• e.g., EEPROM
In-system
SRAM/DRAM
– Advanced RAMs can hold bits without programmable
Near
power zero Write
• e.g., NVRAM ability
During External External External External
• Write ability fabrication programmer, programmer, programmer programmer
In-system, fast
writes,
only one time only 1,000s OR in-system, OR in-system,
– Manner and speed a memory can be of cycles 1,000s block-oriented
unlimited
cycles
written of cycles writes, 1,000s
of cycles
• Storage permanence
– ability of memory to hold stored bits Write ability and storage permanence of memories,
after they are written showing relative degrees along each axis (not to scale).

Write ability
• Ranges of write ability
– High end
• processor writes to memory simply and quickly
• e.g., RAM
– Middle range
• processor writes to memory, but slower
• e.g., FLASH, EEPROM
– Lower range
• special equipment, “programmer”, must be used to write to memory
• e.g., EPROM, OTP ROM
– Low end
• bits stored only during fabrication
• e.g., Mask-programmed ROM
• In-system programmable memory
– Can be written to by a processor in the embedded system using the
memory
– Memories in high end and middle range of write ability

Storage permanence
• Range of storage permanence
– High end
• essentially never loses bits
• e.g., mask-programmed ROM
– Middle range
• holds bits days, months, or years after memory’s power source turned off
• e.g., NVRAM
– Lower range
• holds bits as long as power supplied to memory
• e.g., SRAM
– Low end
• begins to lose bits almost immediately after written
• e.g., DRAM
• Nonvolatile memory
– Holds bits after power is no longer supplied
– High end and middle range of storage permanence

ROM: “Read-Only” Memory
• Nonvolatile memory
• Can be read from but not written to, by a
processor in an embedded system External view
• Traditionally written to, “programmed”, enable 2k × n ROM
before inserting to embedded system A0
…
• Uses Ak-1
…
– Store software program for general-purpose Qn-1 Q0

processor
• program instructions can be one or more ROM
words
– Store constant data needed by system
– Implement combinational circuit

Example: 8 x 4 ROM
• Horizontal lines = words
• Vertical lines = data Internal view
• Lines connected only at circles 8 × 4 ROM

• Decoder sets word 2’s line to 1 if enable 3×8
word 0
word 1
address input is 010 decoder word 2

A0 word line
• Data lines Q3 and Q1 are set to 1 A1

A2
because there is a “programmed”
connection with word 2’s line data line
programmable
• Word 2 is not connected with data connection wired-OR
lines Q2 and Q0 Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0
• Output is 1010

Implementing combinational function
• Any combinational circuit of n functions of same k variables
can be done with 2^k x n ROM
Truth table
Inputs (address) Outputs
a b c y z 8×2 ROM
0 0 word 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 word 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 0 enable 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 c 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 b 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 word 7
a
y z

Mask-programmed ROM
• Connections “programmed” at fabrication

– set of masks
• Lowest write ability
– only once
• Highest storage permanence
– bits never change unless damaged
• Typically used for final design of high-volume systems
– spread out NRE cost for a low unit cost

OTP ROM: One-time programmable ROM
• Connections “programmed” after manufacture by user
– user provides file of desired contents of ROM
– file input to machine called ROM programmer
– each programmable connection is a fuse
– ROM programmer blows fuses where connections should not exist
• Very low write ability
– typically written only once and requires ROM programmer device
• Very high storage permanence
– bits don’t change unless reconnected to programmer and more fuses blown
• Commonly used in final products
– cheaper, harder to inadvertently modify

EPROM: Erasable programmable ROM
• Programmable component is a MOS transistor
– Transistor has “floating” gate surrounded by an insulator 0V
– (a) Negative charges form a channel between source and drain floating gate
storing a logic 1 source drain
– (b) Large positive voltage at gate causes negative charges to move

out of channel and get trapped in floating gate storing a logic 0 (a)
– (c) (Erase) Shining UV rays on surface of floating-gate causes

negative charges to return to channel from floating gate restoring
the logic 1
+15V
– (d) An EPROM package showing quartz window through which
UV light can pass (b)
source drain
• Better write ability

– can be erased and reprogrammed thousands of times 5-30 min
• Reduced storage permanence

– program lasts about 10 years but is susceptible to radiation (c)
source drain
and electric noise

• Typically used during design development
(d)
Embedded Systems Design: A Unified .

13
EEPROM: Electrically erasable
programmable ROM
• Programmed and erased electronically
– typically by using higher than normal voltage
– can program and erase individual words
• Better write ability
– can be in-system programmable with built-in circuit to provide higher
than normal voltage
• built-in memory controller commonly used to hide details from memory user
– writes very slow due to erasing and programming
• “busy” pin indicates to processor EEPROM still writing
– can be erased and programmed tens of thousands of times
• Similar storage permanence to EPROM (about 10 years)
• Far more convenient than EPROMs, but more expensive
Flash Memory
• Extension of EEPROM
– Same floating gate principle
– Same write ability and storage permanence
• Fast erase
– Large blocks of memory erased at once, rather than one word at a time
– Blocks typically several thousand bytes large
• Writes to single words may be slower
– Entire block must be read, word updated, then entire block written back
• Used with embedded systems storing large data items in
nonvolatile memory
– e.g., digital cameras, TV set-top boxes, cell phones

RAM: “Random-access” memory
external view
• Typically volatile memory r/w 2k × n read and write
– bits are not held without power supply enable memory
A0
• Read and written to easily by embedded system …
during execution Ak-1

…
• Internal structure more complex than ROM

Qn-1 Q0
– a word consists of several memory cells, each
internal view
storing 1 bit I3 I2 I1 I0
– each input and output data line connects to each cell

4×4 RAM
in its column
enable 2×4
– rd/wr connected to every cell decoder
A0
– when row is enabled by decoder, each cell has logic A1
that stores input data bit when rd/wr indicates write Memory
cell
or outputs stored bit when rd/wr indicates read rd/wr To every cell
Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0

Basic types of RAM
• SRAM: Static RAM memory cell internals
– Memory cell uses flip-flop to store bit

SRAM
– Requires 6 transistors
– Holds data as long as power supplied
Data' Data
• DRAM: Dynamic RAM
– Memory cell uses MOS transistor and W
capacitor to store bit
– More compact than SRAM
DRAM
– “Refresh” required due to capacitor leak
Data
• word’s cells refreshed when read W
– Typical refresh rate 15.625 microsec.

– Slower to access than SRAM

Ram variations
• PSRAM: Pseudo-static RAM

– DRAM with built-in memory refresh controller
– Popular low-cost high-density alternative to SRAM
• NVRAM: Nonvolatile RAM
– Holds data after external power removed
– Battery-backed RAM
• SRAM with own permanently connected battery
• writes as fast as reads
• no limit on number of writes unlike nonvolatile ROM-based memory
– SRAM with EEPROM or flash
• stores complete RAM contents on EEPROM or flash before power turned off

Example:
HM6264 & 27C256 RAM/ROM devices
• Low-cost low-capacity memory
devices 11-13, 15-19 data<7…0>
11-13, 15-19 data<7…0>
2,23,21,24, addr<15...0> 27,26,2,23,21, addr<15...0>
• Commonly used in 8-bit 25, 3-10
22 /OE
24,25, 3-10
22 /OE
microcontroller-based 27 /WE 20 /CS
embedded systems 20 /CS1
26 CS2 HM6264 27C256

• First two numeric digits indicate block diagrams
device type Device

HM6264
Access Time (ns)
85-100
Standby Pwr. (mW)
.01
Active Pwr. (mW)
15
Vcc Voltage (V)
5
27C256 90 .5 100 5
– RAM: 62
device characteristics
– ROM: 27 Read operation Write operation
• Subsequent digits indicate data data
capacity in kilobits addr

OE
addr
WE
/CS1 /CS1
CS2 CS2
timing diagrams

Example:
TC55V2325FF-100 memory device
• 2-megabit data<31…0> Device
TC55V23
Access Time (ns)
10
Standby Pwr. (mW)
na
Active Pwr. (mW)
1200
Vcc Voltage (V)
3.3
synchronous pipelined addr<15…0> 25FF-100
addr<10...0>
burst SRAM memory device characteristics
/CS1
device /CS2 A single read operation
• Designed to be CS3
CLK
interfaced with 32-bit /WE
/ADSP
processors /OE
/ADSC
• Capable of fast
MODE
/ADV
/ADSP
sequential reads and /ADSC
addr <15…0>
/WE
writes as well as /ADV /OE
single byte I/O CLK /CS1 and /CS2
TC55V2325F CS3
F-100
data<31…0>
block diagram
timing diagram

Composing memory
• Memory size needed often differs from size of readily Increase number of words
available memories 2m+1 × n ROM
• When available memory is larger, simply ignore unneeded 2m × n ROM
high-order address bits and higher data lines A0

… …
• When available memory is smaller, compose several smaller Am-1
1×2 …
memories into one larger memory Am decoder
– Connect side-by-side to increase width of words 2m × n ROM
– Connect top to bottom to increase number of words enable

…
• added high-order address line selects smaller memory
containing desired word using a decoder …
– Combine techniques to increase number and width of words

…
Qn-1 Q0
2m × 3n ROM
enable 2m × n ROM 2m × n ROM 2m × n ROM A
Increase width Increase number

A0 and width of
of words … … …
Am words
… … … enable
Q3n-1 Q2n-1 Q0 outputs

Memory hierarchy
• Want inexpensive, fast
memory
Processor
• Main memory
– Large, inexpensive, slow Registers
memory stores entire

Cache
program and data
• Cache Main memory
– Small, expensive, fast Disk
memory stores copy of likely

accessed parts of larger Tape
memory
– Can be multiple levels of
cache
Cache
• Usually designed with SRAM
– faster but more expensive than DRAM
• Usually on same chip as processor
– space limited, so much smaller than off-chip main memory
– faster access ( 1 cycle vs. several cycles for main memory)
• Cache operation:
– Request for main memory access (read or write)
– First, check cache for copy
• cache hit
– copy is in cache, quick access
• cache miss
– copy not in cache, read address and possibly its neighbors into cache
• Several cache design choices
– cache mapping, replacement policies, and write techniques

Cache mapping
• Far fewer number of available cache addresses

• Are address’ contents in cache?
• Cache mapping used to assign main memory address to cache
address and determine hit or miss
• Three basic techniques:
– Direct mapping
– Fully associative mapping
– Set-associative mapping
• Caches partitioned into indivisible blocks or lines of adjacent
memory addresses
– usually 4 or 8 addresses per line

Direct mapping
• Main memory address divided into 2 fields
– Index
• cache address
• number of bits determined by cache size
– Tag
• compared with tag stored in cache at address Tag Index Offset
indicated by index V T D
• if tags match, check valid bit
• Valid bit Data
– indicates whether data in slot has been loaded =

Valid
from memory
• Offset
– used to find particular word in cache line

Fully associative mapping
• Complete main memory address stored in each cache address

• All addresses stored in cache simultaneously compared with
desired address
• Valid bit and offset same as direct mapping
Tag Offset
Data
V T D V T D V T D
…
Valid
= =
=

Set-associative mapping
• Compromise between direct mapping and

fully associative mapping
• Index same as in direct mapping
• But, each cache address contains content Tag Index Offset
and tags of 2 or more memory address V T D V T D

locations Data
• Tags of that set simultaneously compared as Valid
in fully associative mapping = =
• Cache with set size N called N-way set-

associative
– 2-way, 4-way, 8-way are common

Cache-replacement policy
• Technique for choosing which block to replace

– when fully associative cache is full
– when set-associative cache’s line is full
• Direct mapped cache has no choice
• Random
– replace block chosen at random
• LRU: least-recently used
– replace block not accessed for longest time
• FIFO: first-in-first-out
– push block onto queue when accessed
– choose block to replace by popping queue

Cache write techniques
• When written, data cache must update main memory

• Write-through
– write to main memory whenever cache is written to
– easiest to implement
– processor must wait for slower main memory write
– potential for unnecessary writes
• Write-back
– main memory only written when “dirty” block replaced
– extra dirty bit for each block set when cache block written to
– reduces number of slow main memory writes

Cache impact on system performance
• Most important parameters in terms of performance:
– Total size of cache
• total number of data bytes cache can hold
• tag, valid and other house keeping bits not included in total
– Degree of associativity
– Data block size
• Larger caches achieve lower miss rates but higher access cost
– e.g.,
• 2 Kbyte cache: miss rate = 15%, hit cost = 2 cycles, miss cost = 20 cycles
– avg. cost of memory access = (0.85 * 2) + (0.15 * 20) = 4.7 cycles
• 4 Kbyte cache: miss rate = 6.5%, hit cost = 3 cycles, miss cost will not change
– avg. cost of memory access = (0.935 * 3) + (0.065 * 20) = 4.105 cycles (improvement)
• 8 Kbyte cache: miss rate = 5.565%, hit cost = 4 cycles, miss cost will not change
– avg. cost of memory access = (0.94435 * 4) + (0.05565 * 20) = 4.8904 cycles (worse)

Cache performance trade-offs
• Improving cache hit rate without increasing size

– Increase line size
– Change set-associativity
0.16
0.14
0.12
% cache miss
0.1 1 way
2 way
0.08
4 way
0.06 8 way
0.04
0.02
0
cache size
1 Kb 2 Kb 4 Kb 8 Kb 16 Kb 32 Kb 64 Kb 128 Kb

Advanced RAM
• DRAMs commonly used as main memory in processor

based embedded systems
– high capacity, low cost
• Many variations of DRAMs proposed
– need to keep pace with processor speeds
– FPM DRAM: fast page mode DRAM
– EDO DRAM: extended data out DRAM
– SDRAM/ESDRAM: synchronous and enhanced synchronous
DRAM
– RDRAM: rambus DRAM

Basic DRAM
• Address bus multiplexed between
row and column components
• Row and column addresses are
data
latched in, sequentially, by strobing Refresh
Circuit
ras and cas signals, respectively
Col Addr. Buffer

Data In Buffer
Sense
• Refresh circuitry can be external or Amplifiers
Col Decoder
internal to DRAM device rd/wr cas
cas, ras, clock

– strobes consecutive memory
Data Out Buffer
Row Decoder
Row Addr. Buffer
address periodically causing
memory content to be refreshed
ras
– Refresh circuitry disabled during address
Bit storage array
read or write operation

Fast Page Mode DRAM (FPM DRAM)
• Each row of memory bit array is viewed as a page
• Page contains multiple words
• Individual words addressed by column address
• Timing diagram:
– row (page) address sent
– 3 words read consecutively by sending column address for each
• Extra cycle eliminated on each read/write of words from same page
ras
cas
address row col col col
data data data data

Extended data out DRAM (EDO DRAM)
• Improvement of FPM DRAM

• Extra latch before output buffer
– allows strobing of cas before data read operation completed
• Reduces read/write latency by additional cycle
ras
cas
address row col col col
data data data data
Speedup through overlap

(S)ynchronous and
Enhanced Synchronous (ES) DRAM
• SDRAM latches data on active edge of clock
• Eliminates time to detect ras/cas and rd/wr signals
• A counter is initialized to column address then incremented on
active edge of clock to access consecutive memory locations
• ESDRAM improves SDRAM
– added buffers enable overlapping of column addressing
– faster clocking and lower read/write latency possible
clock
ras
cas
address
row col
data
data data data

Rambus DRAM (RDRAM)
• More of a bus interface architecture than DRAM

architecture
• Data is latched on both rising and falling edge of
clock
• Broken into 4 banks each with own row decoder
– can have 4 pages open at a time
• Capable of very high throughput

DRAM integration problem
• SRAM easily integrated on same chip as processor

• DRAM more difficult
– Different chip making process between DRAM and
conventional logic
– Goal of conventional logic (IC) designers:
• minimize parasitic capacitance to reduce signal propagation delays
and power consumption
– Goal of DRAM designers:
• create capacitor cells to retain stored information
– Integration processes beginning to appear

Memory Management Unit (MMU)
• Duties of MMU
– Handles DRAM refresh, bus interface and arbitration
– Takes care of memory sharing among multiple
processors
– Translates logic memory addresses from processor to
physical memory addresses of DRAM
• Modern CPUs often come with MMU built-in
• Single-purpose processors can be used


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Embedded Systems Design: A Unified

• Memory Write Ability and Storage Permanence

Embedded Systems Design: A Unified 2

• Embedded system’s functionality aspects

Embedded Systems Design: A Unified 3

• Stores large number of bits m × n memory

memory external view

– r/w: selects read or write A0

Embedded Systems Design: A Unified 4

• Traditional ROM/RAM distinctions

Embedded Systems Design: A Unified 5

Embedded Systems Design: A Unified 6

Embedded Systems Design: A Unified 7

• Traditionally written to, “programmed”, enable 2k × n ROM

before inserting to embedded system A0

– Store software program for general-purpose Qn-1 Q0

Embedded Systems Design: A Unified 8

• Lines connected only at circles 8 × 4 ROM

address input is 010 decoder word 2

• Data lines Q3 and Q1 are set to 1 A1

Embedded Systems Design: A Unified 9

Embedded Systems Design: A Unified 10

• Connections “programmed” at fabrication

Embedded Systems Design: A Unified 11

Embedded Systems Design: A Unified 12

storing a logic 1 source drain

– (b) Large positive voltage at gate causes negative charges to move

– (c) (Erase) Shining UV rays on surface of floating-gate causes

• Better write ability

• Reduced storage permanence

and electric noise

Embedded Systems Design: A Unified .

Embedded Systems Design: A Unified 15

during execution Ak-1

• Internal structure more complex than ROM

– each input and output data line connects to each cell

Embedded Systems Design: A Unified 16

• SRAM: Static RAM memory cell internals

– Memory cell uses flip-flop to store bit

– Typical refresh rate 15.625 microsec.

Embedded Systems Design: A Unified 17

• PSRAM: Pseudo-static RAM

Embedded Systems Design: A Unified 18

microcontroller-based 27 /WE 20 /CS

embedded systems 20 /CS1

26 CS2 HM6264 27C256

device type Device

• Subsequent digits indicate data data

capacity in kilobits addr

Embedded Systems Design: A Unified 19

synchronous pipelined addr<15…0> 25FF-100

single byte I/O CLK /CS1 and /CS2

Embedded Systems Design: A Unified 20

high-order address bits and higher data lines A0

– Connect side-by-side to increase width of words 2m × n ROM

– Connect top to bottom to increase number of words enable

– Combine techniques to increase number and width of words

Increase width Increase number

Q3n-1 Q2n-1 Q0 outputs