Directional relay

Overcurrent relay limitation

• Distance relays are preferred to overcurrent reIays because
they are not nearly so much affected by changes in short-
circuit-current magnitude as overcurrent relays are,
and,hence, are much less affected by changes in generating
capacity and in system configuration. This is because, as
described, distance relays achieve selectivity on the basis of
impedance rather than current.
For fault at Fx

For fault at Fy
For fault at Fx

For fault at Fy
For fault at Fx

For fault at Fy
 Series compensated line
L M -jXc N
Line1 Fx Fy Line2
~ ~
Source-1 Source-2

I FN
EM VFM EM
x

VMpre VMpre
Ipre Ipre
y
VFM

I FN EN
EN
 I M I FN

EM
x
VMpre
Ipre VFM
VM
EN
EM

VMpre
I pre VFM
VM 
L
I pre
I M EN
 Power swing
EM
VFM
For fault at Fy
y

I FM
EN

EM For fault at Fx
V FM
x
(It Fails for Fx)
I FN

EN
 y
I M I M EM
x EM
VFM
I FN VFM VM
VM I FM
Ipre
Ipre

EN
For fault at Fy

For fault at Fx (It Fails for Fy side)

 I 2FN
x

I 2FM

For fault at Fy For fault at Fy

THREE-PHASE FAULT DURING
POWER SWING
AG FAULT DURING POWER SWING
 Single line-to-Ground fault
The system to be analyzed is
a Ia

Ea

Ec Eb

b Ib
c
Ic
 The boundary conditions are
Va  0 (1)
Ib  0 (2)
Ic  0 (3)

The sequence network equations are

Va 0   I a 0 Z 0 (4)
Va1  Ea  I a1Z1 (5)
Va 2   I a 2 Z 2 (6)

1
I a1  ( I a   Ib   2 Ic ) (7)
3
1
Ia2  ( I a   2 Ib   Ic ) (8)
3
1
Ia0  ( I a  Ib  Ic ) (9)
3
The boundary conditions equations (7), (8) and (9)

I a1  I a 2  I a 0  I a / 3 (10)

Va  0  Va1  Va 2  Va 0 (11)

Ea  I a1Z1  I a 2 Z 2  I a 0 Z 0  0 (12)

Ea  I a1Z1  I a1Z 2  I a1Z 0  0 (13)

Since I a 0  I a1  I a 2
Ea
I a1  (14)
Z1  Z 2  Z 0
Hence the line diagram-

Z1

ia1
Ea ~

Z2

ia2

Z0

ia0
 Single line-to-Ground fault
The system to be analyzed is
a Ia

Ea

Ec Eb

b Ib
c
Ic
 Ground faults
Va  0 (1)
Ib  0 (2)
Ic  0 (3)

 I0  1 1 1   Ia  2
 I   1 1   2   I b 
j
 1 3
 I 2  1  2    I c  ,  e 3

Va  I a1 Z1  I a 2 Z 2  I a 0 Z 0
 [ I a1Z1  I a 2 Z1  I a 0 Z1 ]  I a 0 Z1  I a 0 Z 0
 Z  Z1 
 I a Z1  I a 0 Z 0  Z1  Z1  I a  I a 0 0 
 Z1 
 Z1  I a  I a 0 K 
Va Z 0  Z1
So, Z1  ,K   Re sidual
Ia  Ia0 K Z1
compensation factor
 Line-to-line fault
V1  V f 1  I1Z1 a
V2  V f 2  I 2 Z 2 b
c
Vf 1  Vf 2
V1  V2  I1Z1  I 2 Z 2  Z1 ( I1  I 2 )
V1  V2
Z1 
I1  I 2
Vb   2V1  V2  V0
Vc  V1   2V2  V0
Vb  Vc  ( 2   )V1  (   2 )V2
Vb  Vc  (V1  V2 )( 2   )
I b  I c  ( I1  I 2 )( 2   )
Vb  Vc V  V2
 1  Z1
Ib  Ic I1  I 2
Double Line-to-ground fault
Double Line-to-ground fault
Three-phase fault
 Zones of protection
10% more Z3
Z2
than AC
Z1
120-150%
80%

Ea

A B C
Distance

Zone-1---instantaneous----1 to 2 cycle
Zone-2---------20-30 cycle

Zone-3-------50 cycles
 Ten types of fault

ag, bg, cg, ab, bc, ca, abg, bcg, cag, abc,abcg

Fault Distance Trip/no trip

Decision
Fault
Detector Classifier estimation

This classification can be obtained by voltage comparison, current

comparison
   Component is another approach

1 a  g  I  2 I 0 , I   0
1 1 
1  bcg  I   I 0
TC   2 1 1 
3 bc  I  0, I 0  0
0 3  3 
abc  I 0  0

Apply similarly with b and c phases reference to identify

acg, ab, ac, abg
Symmetrical component distance relay
 I0  1 1 1   Ia   E0  1 1 1   Ea  2
j
 I   1 1 a
 1 3 a 2   I b   E   1 1 a
 1 3 a 2   Eb  ae 3

 I 2  1 a 2 a   I c   E2  1 a 2 a   Ec 

k
I1 kZ1
E1
Rf
If
(1)
R1f
I0 kZ01
I2 kZ2 E1W
E0
E2
If
If
(3) R0f
(2) R2f
E0W
E2W
E1W  E1  kI1Z1  R f I1 f
E2W  E2  kI 2 Z1  R f I 2 f
E0W  E0  kI 0 Z 0  R f I 0 f
I 0  I 0  I 0 , I 0  prefault current
I1  I1  I1
I 2  I 2  I 2
voltaged drops can defined as
E0  I 0 Z 0
E1  I1Z1 , E2  I 2 Z 2
 E0
k0 
E0
E1
k1 
E1
E2
k2 
E2
Z1 I1
kL 
E1
From (1)

 k1  k 1  k L  
E1W  E1    R f I1 f
E2W  E2  k 2  k1   R f I 2 f
E0W  E0  k0  k  E0  R f I 0 f (5)
 Three-phase fault
I1 kZ1
E1
If
R1f
E1W

0  E1  k1  k 1  k L  
  R f I1 f
k1  R f I1 f
k   r , r  (6)
1  kL E1 1  k L 
this is small as R f is small
in initial period of the fault
Similarly for other faults the equations are

k1  k 2 k 2 '  k0 k0 '
k 
1  k0 '  k 2 '  k L
E0 1 , if E2  E1 
k0 '
 , k2  
'

E 0 , Otherwise 
 Protection of parallel lines

A B
F1 L-1
~ }Z 0mf

L-2

E1 f  E1  Z1 f I1
E2 f  E2  Z1 f I 2
E0 f  E0  Z 0 f I 01  Z 0 mf I 02
Eaf  E0 f  E1 f  E2 f  ( E0  E1  E2 ) 
Z1 f ( I1  I 2 )  Z 0 f I 01  Z 0 mff I 02  0
 E1 f  E1  Z1 f I1
E2 f  E2  Z1 f I 2
E0 f  E0  Z 0 f I 01  Z 0 mf I 02
Ea  Z1 f I a   Z 0 f  Z1 f I 01  Z 0 mf I 02  0

Ea
Z1 f 
Ia'
Z 0 f  Z1 f Z 0 mf
where I a  I a 
'
I 01  I 02
Z1 f Z1 f
 I a  k0 I 01  k0 ' I 02
Z 0 f  Z1 f Z 0 mf
k0  , k0 
'

Z1 f Z1 f
currents of the parallel lines must be available.
 Differential equation algorithm

This is based on model of the system rather than the signal model

For single phase model

di
v  t   R  t  i (t )  L
dt

To avoid derivatives
t1 t1

 v t   R  i t   L i t   i t  
t0 t0
1 0 (1)

t2 t2

 v t   R i t   L i t   i t 
t1 t1
2 1 (2)
Using Trapezoidal rule,

t  t2  t1  t1  t0

t t
t1

t v  t  dt  2 v(t1 )  v(t0 )  2 v1  v0 

0

From (1) &(2) for k , k  1, k  2th samples(three samples)

 t   t 
 2  ik 1  ik   ik 1  ik    R    vk 1  vk  
2
    
 t  i  i  
 ik  2  ik 1   L   t
 vk  2  vk 1  
 2 k  2 k 1   2 
 From three samples of V,I

  vk 1  vk  ik  2  ik 1    vk  2  vk 1  ik 1  ik  
R  (3)
  ik 1  ik  ik  2  ik 1    ik  2  ik 1  ik 1  ik  

t   ik 1  ik  vk  2  vk 1    ik  2  ik 1  vk 1  vk  
L   (4)
2   ik 1  ik  ik  2  ik 1    ik  2  ik 1  ik 1  ik  
 Frequency response with a span of half cycle and full cycle data window

1.0 1.0

100 300 50 100

Hz Hz

half cycle window of 10 samples/cycle Full cycle

 Window approach

 t   t 
 2  ik 1  ik   ik 1  ik    2  vk 1  vk  
   
 t  i  i   i  i    t  v  v  
 2 k  2 k 1 k 2 k 1
  2 k  2 k 1 
  R  
 . .  L    . 
 . .    . 
   
 t  i  i   i  i    t
 v  v  
 2 k  N k  N 1 kN k  N 1
  2 k  N k  N 1 
   
Then least square approach provides
solution.
Series compensated line
A B C D

X B
100% Compensation
D

A
R

C
 Voltage and current reversal

Xs XC XL

3-Phase fault

Vs ~ Relay-A Relay-B

X= Xs +XC +XL

Vs Vs
Is  
j  X s  X C  X L  jX

Is Lags or leads voltage by 900 ,depending on sign of X

Current reversal
Current reversal
Relay at A I r  I s , I r  fault current

Vs Vs
Is   XC  X s  X L
j  X s  X C  X L  jX
Both A & B relay will experience current reversal

Voltage reversal
For Relay at A

Vs   XC  X L  
Vr  A  jI s   X C  X L   j   X C  X L   Vs  
jX  X 
The voltage measured by the relay V
r  A , will reverse its sign when
X C  X L , X  0, X C  X s  X L
For Relay at B

Vs
Vr  B   jI s  X L   j  XL 
jX
Vs
Vr  B   jI s  X L   j  XL 
jX

For Relay at A

X C  X L  X S  Current revesal
X C  X L , X  0 and X C  X L  X S  Voltage revesal
For Relay at B

X C  X L  X S  Current revesal
X C  X L  X S  Voltage revesal
Forward X
X
1
X Forward
2

3 X X
4 Reverse
Reverse
Subsynchronous resonance
Y  t   a1 sin 1t  a0 sin(0t   )
1  0

Y (t )  a11 cos 1t  a00 cos(0t   )

Y (t )  a112 sin 1t  a00 2 sin(0t   )
12 0 2
2 2
 
  

Y (t ) Y (t )
a0 2     
 0   0  2
   
  
Y (t ) 
  0t  tan 1 
 


 0 Y ( t ) 
Adaptive protection

Fault Distance Fixed OR Trip

Fault setting
Detector Classifier estimation logic
Block

Adaptive
setting

System
parameter
 Adaptive relaying

Adaptive protection is a protection philosophy

which permits and seeks to make adjustments
in various protection functions automatically in
order to make them more attuned to prevailing
power system conditions.
 Z ld

Eam Ean
Z SM M Z LN F Z LN N Z SN
~ ~
RF
Z am  Z amf  Z ld I an  I amf  I ld

Ean Z1m  Z1sm  Z1lm Z 0 m  Z 0 sm  Z 0lm

 he  j
Eam Z1n  Z1sn  Z1l n Z 0 n  Z 0 sn  Z 0l n

Pre-fault load current in phase A can be expressed as

 Pre-fault load current in phase A can be expressed as

I ld 
Eam  Ean

 
1  he  j Eam
Z1m  Z1n Z1m  Z1n
Pre-fault voltage at F is given by

Vafd  Eam  I ld Z1m

Positive, negative and zero sequence currents through the fault resistance is given by
Positive, negative and zero sequence currents through the fault resistance is given by

Vafd
I1 f  I 2 f  I 0 f 
Z   3R f
Where, Z   Z 0  Z1  Z 2
2 Z1m Z1n Z 0m Z 0n
 
Z1m  Z1n Z 0 m  Z 0 n
sequence currents from M to F are exp ressed as
C1Vafd
I1mf  I 2 mf  C1 I1 f 
Z   3R f
C0Vafd
I 0 mf  C0 I 0 f 
Z   3R f
Where

C0 & C1 are the positive and

zero sequence distribution factor
Z1n Z0n
C1  C0 
Z1m  Z1n Z0m  Z0n

Post fault current in phase A , Iam

I am  I ld  I amf  I ld  ( I1mf  I 2 mf  I 0 mf )

Post fault phase A , voltage at relaying point M may be obtained

Vam  3R f I 0 f  I1mf Z1lm  I 2 mf Z 2lm  I 0mf Z 0lm  I LD Z1lm

or , Vam  V1 f  I1mf Z1lm  V2 f  I 2 mf Z 2lm  V0 f  I 0 mf Z 0lm  I LD Z1lm
 -
Vafd
+

Z1m Z1n V1 f
I1m f I1n f
F
M N 3R f

Z 2m Z 2n V2 f
I 2m f I 2n f
M N

Z0m Z 0n V3 f
I 0mf I 0n f
M N
 The apparent impedance of phase-A measured of M is

Vam
ZA 
Z am  3k0l I 0 m
where k0l is zero sequence compensating factor
Z 0l  Z1l Z 0lm  Z1lm
k0 l  
3Z1l 3Z1lm
 Ipre
A C

~ ~
A two-source system
35

30
D=128 km
25 h=0.95
Rf = 0-200
  200
20
Rf = 0
X 15

10

5 Rf = 200
Rf = 0-200
0

-5
0 50 100 150 200

R
 40

30 D=128 km
h=1.05
Rf = 0-200   200
20
Rf = 0

10
X

Rf = 0-200
-10
Rf = 200
-20

-30
0 50 100 150 200
R
 50
D=128 km
h=0.95

40   100

Rf = 0-200
30
X

20 Rf = 0
Rf = 200

10
Rf = 0-200

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
R
 Adaptive relaying

Adaptive protection is a protection philosophy

which permits and seeks to make adjustments
in various protection functions automatically in
order to make them more attuned to prevailing
power system conditions.
 Adaptive setting

•Distance relay-Swiveling quadrilateral characteristics

va,b,c
Fault Fault
Fault detection
ia,b,c classification measurement

Relay setting Decision logic

Trip
 POWER SWING

Power system faults, line switching, generator disconnection,

and the loss or application of large blocks of load result in
sudden changes to electrical power, whereas the mechanical
power input to generators remains relatively constant.

These system disturbances cause oscillations in machine

rotor angles and can result in severe power flow swings.

Power swings are variations in power flow that occur

when the internal voltages of generators at different
locations of the power system slip relative to each other
Large power swings, stable or unstable, can cause
unwanted relay operations at different network locations,
which can aggravate the power-system disturbance and
cause major power outages or power blackouts.
 Distance relaying during power swing

•Power swings initiated by faults, line switching,

generator loss or large load switching.

•Due to power swing the voltage and current oscillate

M N
Fy Line1

Fx
~ R1
Line2

Simulated three phase power system(400 kV, 50 Hz)

 Cont…
500
Voltage(kV)

Voltage waveform for

ag fault during power
0
swing at t=1.5 sec.

-500
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

2
Current waveform
Current (kA)

1
for ag fault during
0
power swing at t=1.5
-1 sec.
-2

-3
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
4
Angle differnec(rad)

1
Angle between positive
0 sequence component
-1

-2
of Voltage and current
-3

-4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Time(s) 64
Power Swing:

a variation in three phase power flow which occurs

when the generator rotor angles are advancing or
retarding relative to each other in response to
changes in load magnitude and direction, line
switching, loss of generation, faults, and other
system disturbances.
Pole Slip:
A condition whereby a generator, or group of
generators, terminal voltage angles (or phases) go
past 180 degrees with respect to the rest of the
connected power system.
Stable Power Swing:

A power swing is considered stable if the generators do

not slip poles and the system reaches a new state of
equilibrium, i.e. an acceptable operating condition

Unstable Power Swing:

A power swing that will result in a generator or group
of generators experiencing pole slipping for which
some corrective action must be taken
Out-of-Step Condition: Same as an unstable power swing.
Electrical System Center or Voltage Zero:
It is the point or points in the system where the
voltage becomes zero during an unstable power
swing
A Power Swing Block (PSB) function is available in modern
relays to prevent unwanted distance relay element operation
during power swings.

The main purpose of the PSB function is to differentiate

between faults and power swings and block distance or other
relay elements from operating during a power swing.

However, faults that occur during a power swing must be

detected and cleared with a high degree of selectivity and
dependability.
When two areas of a power system, or two
interconnected systems, lose synchronism, the areas
must be separated from each other quickly and
automatically to avoid equipment damage and power
blackouts.

Ideally, the systems should be separated in

predetermined locations to maintain a load-generation
balance in each of the separated areas.
 OUT OF STEP TRIP(OST)
The Out of-Step Trip (OST) function accomplishes this
separation. The main purpose of the OST function is to
differentiate stable from unstable power swings and initiate
system area separation at the predetermined network
locations and at the appropriate source-voltage phase-angle
difference between systems, in order to maintain power
system stability and service continuity.
 IMPEDANCE MEASURED BY DISTANCE
RELAYS DURING POWER SWINGS

The current IL at bus A is computed as

The impedance measured at a relay at bus A would then be

The trajectory of the measured impedance at the relay
during a power swing when the angle between the two
source voltages varies, corresponds to the straight line
that intersects the segment A to B at its middle point.
This point is called the electrical center of the swing.
 POWER-SWING DETECTION METHODS

Concentric Characteristic Schemes

The simplest method for measuring the rate of change of

impedance is to determine the elapsed time required by the
impedance vector to pass through a zone limited by two
impedance characteristics.

The second impedance characteristic is concentric around

the first one.
The simplest method for measuring the rate of change of
impedance is to determine the elapsed time required by
the impedance vector to pass through a zone limited by
two impedance characteristics.

The second impedance characteristic is concentric around

the first one.

This is typically accomplished with either two additional

characteristics, which are used specifically for the power
swing function, or with an additional outer impedance
characteristic that lies concentric to one of the existing
distance protection characteristics.
 Two blinders methods

RRO – Resistive reach outer