Industrial Electronics

Anela L. Salvador
 Industrial Electronics
• the control of industrial machinery and
processes through the use of electronic
circuits and systems
• encompasses the applications of electronics,
controls and communications,
instrumentation and computational
intelligence for the enhancement of industrial
and manufacturing systems and processes.
 Power Electronics
• The control and conversion of electrical
power by power semiconductor devices (wherein
these devices operate as switches)

• To control and convert electrical power from

one form to another
• Power range: from a few VA/Watts to several
MVA / MW
• The primary task of power electronics is to
process and control the flow of electric
energy by supplying voltages and currents in
a form that is optimally suited for user loads.
Interdisciplinary Nature of Power
Electronics

Power electronics is currently the most active discipline in

electric power engineering.
The Four Main Forms of
Conversion

5
Example
• Conversion of electric power
Other names for electric power
converter: Electric
Power Power
-Power converter Power
input output
-Converter Converter
-Switching converter
-Power electronic circuit Control
-Power electronic converter input
• The electric energy in one
form is given at the input
• The power electronic system
converts the electric energy in
the other form
• Example is AC to DC
conversion
 Power Electronic Systems
• Assembly of components that are connected together
to form a functioning machine or an operational
procedure.
• Assembles next general building blocks:
– AC/DC Converters- rectifiers that transform ac to dc with
adjustment of voltage and current
– DC/AC converters- inverters that produce ac of controllable
magnitude and frequency particular with galvanic isolation via
a transformer
– AC/AC converters- ac frequency, phase, magnitude and
power converters, both without and with an intermediary dc
link
– DC/DC converters- linear regulators and switching choppers
 Power Electronic System
Generic structure of a power electronic system

Power Power Power

input Converter output

Control input
Feedforward Feedback
( measurements Controller (measurements
of input signals ) of output signals )
Reference

• The power source can be AC mains, generator or batteries. The power

controller converts the input power which is suitable for the load
• The sensing and feedback circuits monitor the load conditions.
 Power Electronic System
• The control unit consists of drive circuits of
the power controller. The drives of the
switches are adjusted according to feedback
and the reference settings
• The control unit adjusts the drives whenever
there is difference between feedback (actual)
speed and reference speed. The control unit
also accepts commands from the user. These
commands are given for the proper
functioning of the power electronic system
and the load.
 History
Applicat ion of
fast- switching
Invention of fully- controlled
Thyristor semiconductor
devices GTO
Mercury arc rectifier IGBT
GTR
Vacuum- tube rectifier Power diode Power MOSFET
Power MOSFET
Thyratron Thyristor Thyristor
Thyristor
(DSP)
(microprocessor)
1900 1957 mid 1970s late 1980s

Pre-history 1st phase 2nd phase 3rd phase

 Position and Significance in the
Human Society
• Electric power is used in almost every part and everywhere of
modern human society.
• Electric power is the major form of energy source used in modern
human society.
• The objective of power electronics is right on how to use electric
power, and how to use it effectively and efficiently, and how to
improve the quality and utilization of electric power.
• Power electronics and information electronics make two poles of
modern technology and human society: information electronics is the
brain, and power electronics is the muscle.
 Areas of Application of Power
Electronics
• High frequency power conversion
• Power Transmission
– HVDC
– DC/DC, inverters
• Low frequency power conversion
– HVAC
• Power quality
– Power factor
– Line rectifiers
• Distributed power
– Power factor correction
– Harmonic reduction
• Power devices
• Passive filtering
• Active filtering
 Applications
• Heating and lighting control
• Induction heating
• Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS)
• Fluorescent lamp ballasts: Passive; Active
• Electric power transmission
• Automotive electronics
• Electronic ignitions
• Motor drives
• Battery chargers
• Alternators
• Energy storage
• Electric vehicles
• Alternative power sources: Solar; Wind; Fuel Cells
• And more!
 Applications
• Industrial
applications
Motor drives
Electrolysis
Electroplating
Induction heating
Welding
Arc furnaces and
ovens
Lighting
 Applications
• Other Applications
Nuclear reactor control
Power systems for particle accelerators
Environmental engineering
• Trends
• It is estimated that in developed countries now 60% of the
electric energy goes through some kind of power
electronics converters before it is finally used.
• Power electronics has been making major contributions to
--better performance of power supplies and better
control of electric equipment
--energy saving
--environment protection
• Reduction of energy consumption leads to less pollution
• Reduction of pollution produced by power converters
• Direct applications to environment protection technology
Power Electronic Devices

Power Semiconductor Device

Variety
Power Electronic Devices

Comparative diagram of
power ratings and
switching speeds of
semiconductor electronic
devices
 Industrial Breakover Devices
• These are solid-state devices whose principle of operation
depends on the phenomenon of avalanche breakdown.
• Sometime referred to as THYRISTORS, which are
semiconductor switches whose bi-stable action depends on
PNPN regenerative feedback
• Also known as LATCHING devices
• Have two or more junctions and can be switched ON and OFF
at an extremely fast rate.
• These are used where rapid switching and high currents are
desired and are often used to control alternating currents,
where the change of sign of the current causes the devices to
automatically switch off
 Thyristor
• Another name: SCR—silicon controlled rectifier
• Thyristor Opened the power electronics era
–1956, invention, Bell Laboratories
–1957, development of the 1st product, GE
–1958, 1st commercialized product, GE
–Thyristor replaced vacuum devices in almost
every power processing area.

Still in use in high power situation. Thyristor still has

the highest power-handling capability.
 Thyristor
• 4-layer, 3-junction pnpn device
• Has 3 terminals: anode, cathode and gate
• Turn ON: applying a short pulse across
the gate and cathode, once turn on,the
gate loses its control to turn off the device
• Turn OFF: applying a reverse voltage
across the anode and cathode
 Thyristor
• Appearance and symbol of thyristor
 Thyristor
• Structure and equivalent circuit of thyristor

Structure Equivalent circuit

A A
Equivalent
IA
PNP
circuit
V
P1 1
Ic2
IG Ic1
N1 N1 G
V2
G P2 P2 NPN
IK
N2

K
K b)
a)
 Thyristor
• Two Classifications of Thyristor
– Converter grade thyristor
• Slow type and are used in natural commutation(or
phase controlled) applications
– Inverter grade thyristor
• Used in forced commutation applications b
 Thyristor
• Physics of thyristor operation

Equivalent circuit: A pnp transistor and an npn

A
IA transistor interconnected together
PNP
V1 Positive feedback
Ic2 R
IG Ic1 Trigger
G
V2 Can not be turned off by control
NPN
S EA
IK signal
EG
K Half-controllable
 Thyristor
• Other methods to trigger thyristor ON
– High voltage across anode and cathode—avalanche
breakdown
– High rising rate of anode voltage
– High junction temperature
– Light activation

• Static characteristics of thyristor

– Blocking when reverse biased, no matter if there is gate current
applied.
– Conducting only when forward biased and there is triggering
current
applied to the gate.
– Once triggered on, will be latched on conducting even when
the gate current is no longer applied.
 Industrial Breakover Devices- General
Principle of Operation
• The device acts like a switch between two of its terminals,
that is, it has a high resistance "off" state, a low resistance
"on" state, and no other operating region.
• The device is triggered from the "off" state to the "on" state
by a specific value of voltage or current applied to the
appropriate terminal.
• Once the device has been triggered "on", it will remain in that
state even after the trigger voltage or current has been
removed. In other words, it latches "ON". The device is
usually turned "off" by reducing the current flow through the
switch to below some minimum value.
• Once "off", the device can be retriggered to the "on" state.
 Unilateral Switching Devices
• Shockley Diode
– Invented by William Shockley
– A two-terminal four-layer thyristor
– Sometimes referred to as the four-layer diode, PNPN
diode, or reverse-blocking diode thyristor.
– Can be turned ON through the application of sufficient
voltage between anode and cathode
– Can be turned off through the reduction of the applied
voltage to a much lower point where there is too little
current to maintain transistor bias
 Shockley Diode: Basic Operation

• When a positive bias voltage is applied to the anode with respect to the cathode, as shown in
Figure (b), the base-emitter junctions of Q1 and Q2 ( pn junctions 1 and 3 in Figure (a)) are
forward-biased, and the common base-collector junction ( pn junction 2 in Figure (a)) is reverse-
biased.
 Shockley Diode: Basic Operation
• OFF State. If the bias voltage applied is very low,
transistor currents are also very low, thus, αDC’s will
also be very low. With this, IAK will be very small
(usually in μA) and the resistance will be very high.
(usually in MΩ).
• ON State. If the bias voltage applied is increased,
αDC’s also increases until their sum becomes equal
to 1. With this the diode current is maximum (both
transistors are saturated) and its resistance will be
very low (approximately 0Ω).
 Shockley Diode: Basic Operation
• Ways of Increasing αDC
– increasing device temperature
– increasing the bias voltage
– incident light energy
• Important Parameters and Specifications:
– Forward Breakover (or Switching) Voltage [Vs or VBR] - the voltage at
which the Shockley diode enters the forward conduction region.
– Switching Current [Is] - the value of diode current at which switching
occurs.
– Holding Current [IH] - the current needed to hold the diode on, or the
current below which the Shockley diode switches from forward
conduction region to forward blocking region.
 Shockley Diode: Basic Operation
• Characteristic Curve
Shockley Diode: Basic Operation
• Special terms applied to Shockley diode:
• Latch
• Firing
• Breakover
• Critical rate of voltage rise
 Shockley Diode: Applications
1. Over-voltage Indicator. The Shockley diode is used
to protect the sensitive load from possible damage due
to excessive voltage.
 Shockley Diode: Applications
2. Relaxation Oscillator
Operation:
1. Capacitor is initially uncharged, diode is OFF.
2. When the switch S is closed, diode still OFF,
the capacitor will begin to charge to Es. The
voltage across the capacitor is given by:

3. Vc increases and reaches a value equal to Vs;

that is at t = T, the diode turns ON (short
circuit). The capacitor discharges to the diode.
4. When the diode current falls below the
holding current IH, the diode turns OFF again
and capacitor will again charge to Es.
5. Sequence is repeated.
 Shockley Diode: Applications
3. Time Delay Circuit. The function of this circuit shown in Figure
1.6 is to provide a sharp positive pulse output that occurs a
certain time delay after the application of input voltage. The
time delay will be essentially the capacitor charge-up time
given by Equation 1.3
 Summary
• Shockley diodes are 4-layer PNPN semiconductor
devices. They have as a pair of interconnected PNP and
NPN transistors.
• Shockley diodes tend to stay ON once they’ve been
turned on and stay once they’ve been turned off
• There are two ways to latch a Shockley diode: exceed
the anode-to cathode breakover voltage, or exceed the
anode to cathode critical rate of voltage rise.
• There is only one way to cause a Shockley diode to stop
conducting and that is to reduce the current going
through it to a level below its low-current dropout
threshold.
 Sample Problem
• A certain 4-layer diode is biased in the
forward-blocking region with an anode-to-
cathode voltage of 20 V. Under this bias
condition, the anode current is 1 μA.
Determine the resistance of the diode in
the forward-blocking region.
 Solution
• The resistance is
𝑉𝐴𝐾 20𝑉
𝑅𝐴𝐾 = = = 20𝑀Ω
𝐼𝐴 1𝜇𝐴

Related problem: If the anode current is 2 μA and 𝑉𝐴𝐾 = 20V what is

the 4-layer diode’s resistance in the forward-blocking region?
 Unilateral Switching Devices
• Silicon Unilateral Switch (SUS)
– Behaves essentially like the Shockley diode.
– Low voltage device (Vs is usually less than 10V).
– Vs can be controlled more accurately and is less
temperature dependent.
– It has a third terminal called gate that can be used to
reduce Vs to less than its nominal value.
 Comparison Between
Transistors and Thyristors
Transistors Thyristors
1. 3-layers, 2-junction devices 1. 4-layers, 2 or more junction devices
2. Fast response 2. Very fast response
3. High efficiency 3. Very high efficiency
4. Highly reliable 4. Very highly reliable
5. Small voltage drop 5. Very small voltage drop
6. Long life 6. Very long life
7. Small to medium power ratings 7. Very small to very large power ratings
8. Require a continuous flow of current to 8. Require only small pulse for triggering
remain in conducting state then remain in conducting state
9. Low power consumption 9. Very low power consumption
10. Low control capability 10. High control capability
11. Small Turn-ON and turn-OFF time 11. Very small Turn-ON and turn-OFF time
 Bilateral Switching Devices
• Silicon Bilateral Switch (SBS)
– Behaves like the Shockley diode and the SUS, except that it
does for both polarities of applied voltages
– capable of triggering triacs, and it is popular in low-voltage
trigger control circuits
– have breakover voltages lower than those for diacs, ± 8 V
being the most popular rating. V-I characteristic curve of
an SBS is similar to that of the diac, but it has more
pronounced “negative resistance” region i.e., its decline in
voltage is more drastic after it enters the conducting
state.
 Bilateral Switching Devices
•Not only does the SBS show a more vigorous switching
characteristic, but it also more temperature stable and
more symmetrical and has less batch spread than a
DIAC.
 Diode Alternating Current (DIAC)
• Similar to SBS in operation, but it can have higher switching
voltages (up to a few hundreds)
• Diac function basically like two parallel 4-layer diode turned in
opposite direction. The triac function basically like two parallel SCR
turned in opposite directions with a common gate terminal.
• Diac turns on when breakover voltage is reached in either
direction.
• Diac is also a breakover type device. It’s has two terminals A1 and
A2. When breakover voltage reach conduction occur with either
polarity across the two terminals.
Diode Alternating Current (DIAC)
Diode Alternating Current (DIAC):
Characteristic Curve
 Diode Alternating Current (DIAC)
• Once breakover occurs, current direction
depending on the polarity of the voltage
across the terminal. The device turn off
when the current drops below the holding
value.
• The breakover voltage is approximately
symmetrical for a positive and a negative
breakover voltage.
Diode Alternating Current (DIAC):
Basic Operation
 Diode Alternating Current (DIAC):
Basic Operation
• When Diac is biased, the pnpn structure from
A1 to A2 (positive direction) provide the same
operation as 4-layer diode.
• In equivalent circuit Q1 and Q2 are fwd-bias,
Q3 and Q4 are rev-bias. The other way around
if Diac is biased from A2 to A1.
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
• A four-layer (pnpn) device similar to the Shockley diode
except that it has a third terminal called gate.
• SCR is a switching device for high voltage and current
operations.
• It’s a four layer device with three terminals, anode, cathode,
and gate.
• In off state, it act ideally as an open circuit between A and K,
and high resistance.
• In on state it’s act as short between A and K and small
forward resistance.
• Some application are motor control, time delay, heater
control, relay control and phase control.
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
• Principle of Operation
• Operates on the principle of current conduction when the
break over voltage is reached or gate triggering even
though the break over voltage is not reached.
• SCR Waveforms
– The popular terms used to describe how an SCR is
operating are conduction angle and firing delay angle.
– Conduction Angle is the number of degrees of an ac cycle
during which the SCR is turned ON.
– The firing delay angle is the number of degrees of an ac
cycle that elapses before the SCR is turned ON.
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR):
Waveform
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier
(SCR): Characteristic Curve
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier
(SCR)
• Regions of Operation
1. Forward Conduction Region (FCR)- region
that corresponds to the ON state of the SCR
where there is forward current from anode-to-
cathode.
2. Forward and Reverse Blocking Regions
(FBR and RBR) – regions corresponding to the
OFF condition of the SCR where the forward
current from anode-to-cathode is blocked
• Important Parameters and Specifications
1. Forward Breakover Voltage (VBRF) – voltage at which the SCR enters
the forward conduction region.
2. Holding Current (IH) – value of anode current below which the SCR
switches from forward conduction region to the forward blocking region.
3. Gate Trigger Current [voltage] (IGT, VGT) – value of gate current
[voltage] needed to trigger the SCR from forward blocking region to the
forward conduction region under specified condition.
4. Average Forward Current (IFAVE) – maximum continuous DC anode
current that the device can withstand in the conduction state under
specified condition.
5. Reverse Breakdown Voltage (VBDR) – parameter that specifies the
value of reverse voltage from cathode to anode at which the device breaks
into the avalanche region and begins to conduct heavily.
6. Average Gate Power Dissipation (PGAVE) – maximum value of average
power dissipated between gate and cathode.
7. Instantaneous “on” voltage (VF )– voltage drop between anode and
cathode in “on” state at a given current level.
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
• Equivalent Circuit
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
• Turning the SCR ON
1. Gate Triggering
• When IG = 0; V< VBRF; SCR is OFF
• When a pulse is applied at the gate; IG ≠ 0; V < VBRF, SCR
turns ON
2. Increasing the bias voltage
• VAK < VBRF; SCR is OFF
• VAK ≥ VBRF; SCR turns ON
 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
• Like the 4-layer diode, an SCR can also be
turned on without gate triggering by
increasing the anode-to-cathode voltage to a
value exceeding the forward-breakover
voltage.
• The forward-breakover voltage decreases as IG
is increased above 0 V.
• Eventually, a value of IG is reached at which
the SCR turns on at a very low anode-to-
cathode voltage.
 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
• The gate current controls the value of forward
breakover voltage required for turn-on.
• Although anode-to-cathode voltages in excess
of the forward breakover voltage will not
damage the device if current is limited, this
situation should be avoided because the
normal control of the SCR is lost.
• The SCR should normally be triggered on only
with a pulse at the gate.
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier
(SCR)
• Turning the SCR OFF
1. Anode Current Interruption
a. Series Switching (Figure 1.7)
b. Parallel Switching (Figure 1.8)
 Turning off the Silicon-Controlled
Rectifier (SCR)
• When VG returns to 0 V after the trigger pulse
is removed, the SCR cannot turn off.
• It stays in the forward-conduction region.
• IA must drop below the value of IH for it to
turn off.
 Series Circuit Switching
• The series switch in the circuit shown simply
reduces IA to 0 A, causing the SCR to turn off.
 Parallel Circuit Switching
• The parallel switch in the circuit shown routes
part of the total current away from the SCR,
reducing IA to a value < IH.
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier
(SCR)
• Turning the SCR OFF
2. By Forced Commutation
• Requires momentary forcing the current through the SCR to
flow in a direction opposite to the forward conduction so that
the net forward current is reduced below the holding value.
 Forced Commutation
• This method requires momentarily forcing
current through the SCR in the direction
opposite to the forward conduction so that
the net forward current is reduced below IH .
• The basic circuit (as shown in the next slide)
consists of a switch (normally a transistor
switch) and a battery in parallel with the SCR.
 Forced Commutation

• While SCR is conducting, the switch is open.

• To turn off the SCR, the switch
is closed, placing the battery
across the SCR and forcing
current through it opposite to
the forward current. (Typical
turn-off times: few μs to about
30 μs.)
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
• Typical Packages

• Other types of thyristors are found in the

same or similar packages.
 SCR Applications

• On-Off Control of Current

• Shown is an SCR circuit
that permits current to be
switched to a load by the
momentary closure of SW1
and removed from the load by the
momentary closure of SW2.
 On-Off Control of Current
• When SCR is initially off,
momentary closure of SW1
provides a pulse of current
into the gate, triggering
the SCR on so that it
conducts current through RL.
• The SCR remains in conduction even after the
momentary contact of SW1 is removed if IA ≥
IH.
 On-Off Control of Current

• When SW2 is momentarily

closed, current is shunted
across the SCR, reducing IA
below IH.
• This turns the SCR off and
and reduces IL to 0 A.
 Example
Determine IG and IA when
SW1 is momentarily
closed. Assume VAK = 0.8 V,
VGK = 0.7 V, and IH = 20 mA.
What is the state of the
SCR if VA is reduced to 12 V? Why?
 Half-Wave Power Control
• Common SCR applications include the
control of ac power for lamp dimmers,
electric heaters, and electric motors.
• The figure shown is a half-wave, variable-
resistance, phase-
control circuit.
• RL may represent a
heating element or
lamp filament.
 Half-Wave Power Control
• R1 limits the current and R2 sets the trigger
level for the SCR.
• Adjustment on R2 is made to trigger the SCR
at any point on the positive half-cycle of the
ac waveform between
0⁰ and 90⁰.
 Half-Wave Power Control

• When the SCR

triggers near the
peak of the
cycle (approx. 0⁰), it
conducts for approximately 180⁰ and
maximum power is delivered to the load.
 Half-Wave Power Control

• When the SCR

triggers near the
beginning of the
positive half-cycle
(approx. 90⁰), it conducts for approximately
90⁰ and less power is delivered to the load.
 Half-Wave Power Control
• Adjusting R2 can
make triggering any-
where between 0⁰
and 90⁰.
• Thus, a variable amount of power can be
delivered to the load.
• The circuit shows a 45-degree point triggering.
• When the ac input goes negative, the SCR turns
off and does not conduct again until the trigger
point in the next positive half-cycle.
• The diode prevents a negative ac voltage from
being applied to the gate of the SCR.
 Example
• Sketch the voltage waveform across the
SCR in relation to IL for 180⁰, 45⁰, and
90⁰. Assume an ideal SCR. What is the
voltage across the SCR if it is never
triggered?
Solution
 Triode Alternating Current (TRIAC)
• A triac is somewhat like a diac with a gate
terminal.
• It can be activated by a pulse of gate current.
• Unlike the diac, it does not require the breakover
voltage to initiate conduction.
• A bidirectional latching device whose operation
approximates that of the inverse parallel SCRs.
• It is similar to two SCRs connected in parallel and
in opposite directions with a common gate
terminal.
 Triode Alternating Current (TRIAC)
• Unlike the SCR, it can conduct current in either
direction when triggered on, depending on the
polarity of the voltage across its terminals.
• It has relatively low current capability compared
to SCRs (< 50A)
Triode Alternating Current (TRIAC)
 Triode Alternating Current (TRIAC)
Basic Operation
• The gate controls the state of the device between MT1 &
MT2.
• The device is normally OFF and acts as an open circuit
between MT1 & MT2.
• When the appropriate gate voltage or current is applied,
the TRIAC will latch into conduction for either polarity of
applied voltage between MT1 & MT2.
• Once the TRIAC has been triggered ON by a gate signal,
the gate has no further control over the device.
• The device can only be turned OFF by reducing the
current through MT1 & MT2 below the holding value, IH
 The Triac
• The figure shows the triac characteristic curve.
 The Triac
• From the characteristic curve, notice that the
break over potential decreases as the gate
current increases. This is also a property of the
SCR.
• The triac is non-conducting when IA drops below
IH.
• Again, as with SCRs, the only way to turn off the
triac is to reduce the current to a sufficiently low
level.
 The Triac: Applications
• Applications:
1. Phase Controller
2. Static Switch
3. Minimizing radio interference
4. Light control (dimmer)
5. Motor speed controller
• Triacs are also used to control the average power
delivered to a load by method of phase control.
• It can be triggered such that the ac power is
supplied to the load for a controlled portion of
each half-cycle.
 The Triac: Applications
• During each positive half-cycle, the triac is off
for certain interval called the delay angle
(measured in degrees).
• It is triggered on and conducts current through
the load for the remaining portion of the positive
half-cycle, called the conduction angle.
• It is operating at the same principle at the
negative half-cycle but then current is conducted
in the opposite direction through the load.
• The following figures illustrates the said
operation.
 The Triac: Applications
• Basic Triac Phase Control Illustration:
 The Triac: Applications
• Triac Phase Control Circuit:
 The Triac: Applications
•From the phase control circuit, diodes are
used to provide trigger pulses to the gate of
the triac.
•D1 conducts during the (+) half-cycle.
•R1 sets the point on the (+) half-cycle at
which the triac triggers.
•A1 and G are positive with respect to A2.
 The Triac: Applications
•D2 conducts during the (-) half-cycle.
•R1 sets the point on the (-) half-cycle at
which the triac triggers.
•A2 and G are positive with respect to A1.
•In the phase-control circuit, it is necessary
that the triac turns off at the end of each
positive and each negative alternation of the
ac.
 The Triac: Applications
The figure illustrates that there is an interval
near each 0 crossing where the triac current
drops below the holding value (turn-off
interval), thus turning the device off.
 Sample problem 1:
• In the given figure, the switched is closed. If the
triac is fired, what is the approximate current
through the 22 ohm resistor?( Note: Ideally, the
triac has zero volts across it when conducting)
 Solution
• Since the triac has zero volts across it
when conducting the current through 22
ohm resistor

75𝑉
𝐼= = 3.41 A
22Ω
 Sample problem 2:
• In the given figure of problem 1, the switched
is closed. The diac has a breakover voltage of
32V. If the triac has a trigger voltage of 1V and
a trigger current of 10 mA, what is the
capacitor voltage that triggers the triac?
 Solution:
• As the capacitor charges, the voltage
across the DIAC increases. When the
DIAC voltage is slightly less than 32V, the
DIAC is on the verge of breakover. Since
the TRIAC has a trigger voltage of 1V, the
capacitor voltage needs to be:

𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 32 𝑉 + 1 𝑉 = 33𝑉
The Silicon-Controlled Switch (SCS)
•has similarities with the SCR in terms of
construction
•has two gate terminals:
a. cathode gate
b. anode gate
•can be turned on and off using either of
the gate terminals
•available in power ratings lower than
those of the SCR
 Silicon-Controlled Switch (SCS)

• a four-terminal thyristor that has two gate

terminals used to trigger the device on and off
• has schematic symbol and terminal
identification as shown above
 Equivalent Circuit;
Basic Operation

• Assuming Q1 and Q2 are off,

the SCS is not conducting.
• A (+) pulse on GK drives Q2
into conduction, providing
a path for Q1 base current.
• When Q1 turns on, its IC provides IB for Q2,
sustaining the “on” state of the device.
 Equivalent Circuit;
Basic Operation

• The SCS can also be

activated with a (-) pulse
on the GA.
• The said (-) pulse drives Q1
to conduct, providing IB for
Q2.
• Q2 provides a path for Q1 base current,
sustaining the “on” state.
 Equivalent Circuit;
Basic Operation

• The SCS can be turned off

by applying a (+) pulse to
GA.
• This makes the B-E junction
of Q1 reverse-biased, thus
turning Q1 off.
• Q2 cuts off and the SCS ceases conduction.
 Equivalent Circuit;
Basic Operation

• It can also be turned off by

applying a (–) pulse on GK.
• The SCS typically has a
faster turn-off time than
the SCR.
 Other Methods for Turning Off an SCS
• These are switching methods to reduce the IA
below IH.
• The BJT acts as a switch.
 SCS Applications
• SCS and SCR are used in similar applications.
• SCS has the advantage of faster turn-off with
pulses on either gate terminals, but it is more
limited in terms of maximum current and
voltage ratings.
• SCS is sometimes used in digital applications:
counters, registers, and timing circuits.
 The Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
• UJT does not belong to the family of thyristors
because it does not have a 4-layer type of
construction.
• Unijunction means there is only 1 pn junction.
• UJT is a three-terminal device, single junction
device whose operation is similar to a Shockley
diode.
• its switching voltage can be easily varied by the
designer
UJT Basic Construction
and Schematic Symbol
 UJT Equivalent Circuit

Note: The characteristics are different from those of

BJT and FET.
 UJT Equivalent Circuit
• The diode represents the pn junction.
• r‘B1 represents the internal dynamic resistance of
the silicon bar between the emitter and base 1.
• r‘B2 represents the dynamic resistance between
the emitter and base 2.
• The total resistance between base terminals is
called the interbase resistance r‘BB.
 UJT Equivalent Circuit
• r‘BB = r‘B1 + r‘B2
• r‘B1 varies inversely with IE, the reason why it is
shown as a variable resistor.
• r‘B1 can vary from several thousand ohms down
to tens of ohms.
• The voltage across r‘B1 is given by a voltage-
divider principle: VBB (r‘B1 / r‘BB)
 Standoff Ratio
• The ratio r’B1 / r’BB is a UJT characteristic called
the intrinsic standoff ratio, designated by η
(eta).
• When the applied voltage at VEB1 is less than
the sum of voltage drops at r’B1 and the pn
junction, there will be no emitter current
because the pn junction is not forward biased.
• The value of the emitter voltage that causes
the pn junction to become forward-biased is
called the peak-point voltage (VP).
 Standoff Ratio
• VP = ηVBB + Vpn
• When VEB1 reaches VP, the pn junction becomes
forward-biased and IE begins to increase
(increasing the conductivity between emitter
and B1, decreasing r’B1).
• When the UJT is already conducting, it operates
in a negative resistance region up to a certain
value of IE, as shown by the characteristic curve
in the next slide.
 UJT Characteristic Curve
for a Fixed Value of VBB
• Beyond the valley
point, the UJT is in
saturation, and VE
increases very little
with increasing IE.
 UJT Application
• Trigger device for SCRs and TRIACs
• Sawtooth generators
• Non-sinusoidal oscillator
• Phase controller
• Timing circuit
UJT Relaxation Oscillator Circuit and
Waveforms
UJT Relaxation Oscillator Circuit and
Waveforms
Programmable Unijunction Transistor
(PUT)
• PUT is also a type of thyristor.
• It is completely different to UJT in terms of
structure.
• It is only similar to UJT in terms of some
oscillator applications.
• It is similar to SCR but PUT’s VAG can be used
to both turn it on and off.
• It is a type of three-terminal thyristor that
conducts when the voltage at the anode
exceeds the voltage at the gate.
 Programmable Unijunction Transistor
(PUT)
• The gate is
connected to the n-
region adjacent to the
anode.
• The said pn junction
controls the on and off
states of the device.
 Programmable Unijunction Transistor
(PUT)
• The gate is always
biased positive with
respect to the cathode.
• When the anode
voltage exceeds the
gate voltage by
approximately 0.7 V,
the pn junction is
forward-biased, turning
on the PUT.
 Programmable Unijunction Transistor
(PUT)

• The PUT stays in

conduction until the
anode voltage falls
back below 0.7 V,
turning off the PUT.
 Setting the Trigger Voltage
• The gate can be biased to a desired voltage
with an external voltage divider.
 Setting the Trigger Voltage
• When the anode voltage exceeds this
“programmed” gate voltage level, the PUT
conducts.
 PUT Application
• Since the characteristics of the PUT is similar
to that of the UJT, PUT can replace UJT in
applications such as the relaxation oscillator.
 PUT Application
• The gate is biased at 9 V by
the voltage divider R2 and
R3.
• When there is dc supply
applied, the PUT is off and
the capacitor charges to
18 V through R1.
 PUT Application
• When the VC reaches VG + 0.7 V, the PUT
conducts and the capacitor
rapidly discharges through
the PUT’s low “on”
resistance and R4.
• A voltage spike is
developed across R4
during the discharge.
 PUT Application
• Until the capacitor discharges, turning off the
PUT, the charging cycle repeats.
PUT Relaxation Oscillator
Waveforms
 Programmable Unijunction Transistor
(PUT)
Advantages of PUT over the UJT
1. Vs is easily varied by changing VG through the voltage
divider ratio.
2. It can operate at low voltage making it compatible with
Integrated Circuits.
3. It has low peak point current and therefore dissipates less
power.
 Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor
• IGBT has both MOSFET and BJT features making it
useful in high-voltage and high-current switching
applications.
• It can replace MOSFET and BJT in the said
applications.
• It has the output conduction characteristics of a
BJT.
• It is voltage-controlled like a MOSFET.
• It is an excellent choice for many high-voltage
switching applications.
 Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor
• Gate, collector, and emitter are the three IGBT
terminals.
• IGBT schematic symbol is similar to that of BJT with
an extra bar representing
the gate structure of a
MOSFET rather than a base.
• It has MOSFET input
characteristics.
 Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor
• It has BJT output characteristics.
• Recall that BJTs are capable of higher
currents than FETs, but MOSFETs have no
gate current because of the insulated gate
structure.
• IGBTs exhibit a lower saturation voltage than
MOSFETs and have about the same
saturation voltage as BJTs.
 Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor
• They are superior to MOSFETs in some
applications because they can handle high VCE
exceeding 200 V and exhibit less saturation
voltage when they are conducting.
• They are superior to BJTs in some applications
because they can switch faster, but they are
slower than MOSFETs.
 Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor
• In terms of features for switching applications,
the following table shows the comparison:
 IGBT Operation
• IGBT is controlled by the gate voltage (like
MOSFETs).
• It is a voltage-controlled BJT, but with faster
switching speeds.
• It is controlled by the insulated gate voltage, thus
it has essentially no input current and does not
load the driving source.
 IGBT Simplified Equivalent
Circuit
• MOSFET serves as the input
element.
• BJT is the output element.
• When VGE is less than a
threshold voltage (Vthresh), the
IGBT is off.
• On the contrary, it is on.
 IGBT Parasitic Elements
• The npnp structure
of IGBT forms a
parasitic transistor
and an inherent
parasitic resistance
within the device.
• These elements have no effect during normal
operation.
 IGBT Parasitic Elements
• If IC max is exceeded,
QP can turn on and
effectively combines
with Q1, forming a
parasitic thyristor in
which latchup
condition can occur.
 IGBT Latch-Up
• During latch-up, the IGBT will stay on and cannot
be controlled by VG.
• It can be avoided by maintaining the operation of
the IGBT within its specified limits.
 Phototransistors
• It is similar to a regular BJT except that IB is
produced and controlled by light instead of a
voltage source.
• It effectively converts variations in light energy
to an electrical signal.
• IB is produced when light strikes the
photosensitive semiconductor base region.
• The C-B pn junction is exposed to incident light
through a lens opening in the transistor
package.
 Phototransistors
• In the absence of incident light, only dark current
exists in the device, typically in the nA range.
• Dark current is the thermally generated C-to-E
leakage current ICEO of the phototransistor in the
absence of incident light.
• In the presence of incident light at the C-B pn
junction, a base current, Iλ , is produced that is
directly proportional to the light intensity.
• Consequently, a collector current that increases
with Iλ is produced.
• The phototransistor behaves like a conventional BJT
though in many cases, there is no electrical
connection to the base.
 Phototransistors
• Ic = βDC Iλ
• The larger C-B region area, the more base
current is generated.
 Phototransistors
• A typical phototransistor is designed to offer a
large area to the incident light.
 Phototransistors
• It can be either a two-lead or a three-lead device.
• For the three-lead configuration, the base lead is brought
out so that the device can be used as a conventional BJT
with or without the additional light-sensitivity feature.
• For the two-lead configuration, the base is not electrically
available and the phototransistor can be used only with a
light input.
• Usually, phototransistors are used in the two-lead
configuration.
• The next slide shows the phototransistor basic bias circuit
and collector characteristics.
• Each curve corresponds to a certain value of light
intensity (in mW/cm2).
• IC increases with light intensity.
 Phototransistors
• Bias configuration and collector characteristics:
 Phototransistors
• Phototransistors are only sensitive to light within a
certain range of wavelengths.
• The figure shows the typical transistor spectral
response:
 Photodarlington
• It consists of a phototransistor
connected in darlington
arrangement with a conventional
BJT as shown.
• It has a higher current gain that
accounts for its much higher IC and
has a greater light sensitivity than
a regular phototransistor.