SEISMIK INVERSI DAN ATRIBUT

KULIAH 2
REVIEW ROCK PHYSICS

Juventa
Teknik Geofisika
FST
Unja
 Apa itu rock physics?
Ilmu yang memperlajari tentang hubungan antara
properti dari batuan reservoir dan objek geofisika
yang bisa diamati
 BASIC ROCK PHYSICS
 The seismic amplitude response is dependent on the
properties of P-wave velocity (VP), S-wave velocity (VS),
and density () in a porous reservoir rock. As shown
below, this involves the matrix material, the porosity,
and the fluids filling the pores:
 DENSITY
 Dependency of Density to other factors can be modeled
with the following equation:

ρsat  ρm(1  )  ρw Sw   ρhc(1  Sw )

where: ρ  density,
  porosity,
Sw  water saturation,
sat,m,hc ,w  saturated, matrix,
hydrocarbon , water subscripts.
 Density vs Water Saturation - Porosity = 33%
Densities: Oil = 0.8 Gas = 0.001
2.2

2.1
Density

1.9

1.8

1.7
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Oil Gas Water Saturation

Russell, 2002
EXERCISE 1 :

Given sand matrix density 2.56 g/cc, oil density 0.81 gr/cc and gas
density 0.001 g/cc and porosity 25%. Compute the saturated rock
density for oil and gas sand sarurated, with degree of saturation
100%, 80%, 60%, 40%, 20%, 0%. Then plot the saturated rock rock
of gas and sand in vertikal axis and degree of water saturation in
horizontal axis. Compute the sensitivity of density change to water
saturation for Sw 100% to Sw 0% for both cases using.

Note: use water density 1 gr/cc

 VELOCITY
 Unlike density, which is simply mass divided by unit
volume, velocity involves the deformation of a rock as a
function of time. Let us first consider the ways in
which a square of rock can be moved or deformed:

(a)Contraction (b)Lengthening

(e)
Shear

(c) (d)
Rotation Translation
 STRESS AND STRAIN
 In the previous slide, cases (a), (b), and (e) are called
strains, since the rock changes its size or shape, but
(c) and (d) are simply displacements. The forces that
create this change are called stresses. Let’s look at (a)
and (e) in more detail:

For the compressive case, taking For the shear case, taking
the ratio of the two squares leads the ratio of the two squares leads
to a strain of (ux/x + uy/y) to a strain of (ux/y + uy/x)
 HOOKE’S LAW
 Hooke’s Law: Small stresses and strains (the linear
case) are related by
p  ce
where: p = stress = force per unit area,
c = an elastic constant,
and: e = strain
For a pure compressive stress [case (a)], the elastic constant is called the
bulk modulus, K.

For a pure shear stress [case (e)], the elastic constant is called the shear
modulus, m.
 THE STRESS TENSOR
 There are 9 possible stresses on a cube of rock, but
only 6 are independent, since: pxy = pyx, pxz = pzx, and
pyz = pzy. This is shown below, both mathematically
and physically.

 p xx p xy p xz 
 
p   p yx p yy p yz 
 p zx p zy p zz 

 THE STRAIN TENSOR
 As with stress, there are 9 possible strains on a cube of
rock, but only 6 are independent, since: exy = eyx, exz =
ezx, and eyz = ezy. This is shown below in
mathematical form. Note that the terms are similar to
that shown on the previous slide for the 2D case:

 u x 1  u x u y  1  u x u z  
      
x 2  y x  2  z x 
exx exy exz  
   1  u x u y  u y 1  u y u z 
e  eyx eyy eyz         
  y 2  z y 
ezz    
2 y x
ezx ezy
  1  u x u z  1  u y u z  u z 
       
 2  z x  2  z y  z 
 THE GENERALIZED STRESS-STRAIN
RELATION
 The generalized relationship between stress and strain
in the full anisotropic elastic case involves 21
components in the elastic modulus matrix, as shown
below. Notice that the matrix is symmetrical around
the main diagonal:

 p xx  C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16  exx 

p    
 yy  C12 C22 C23 C24 C25 C26  e yy 
 p zz  C13 C23 C33 C34 C35 C36   ezz 
   
 p yz  C14 C24 C34 C44 C45 C46  e yz 
 p xz  C15 C25 C35 C45 C55 C56   exz 
    
 p xy  C16 C26 C36 C46 C56 C66  exy 
 THE ISOTROPIC STRESS-STRAIN
RELATION
 For the isotropic case, the situation is much simpler,
involving only two unique values, which are called
the Lamé parameters l and m :

 p xx  l  2 m l l 0 0 0  exx 
p    
 yy   l l  2m l 0 0 0  e yy 
 p zz   l l l  2m 0 0 0   ezz 
   
 p yz   0 0 0 m 0 0  e yz 
 p xz   0 0 0 0 m 0   exz 
    
 p xy   0 0 0 0 0 m  exy 
 DERIVING THE VELOCITIES
 Transforming the static stress-strain relationship into
the dynamic effects of velocity involves two steps:

 - introducing momentum via Newton’s law: F = ma

 - introducing density, since mass is the product of density
times volume.

 The derivation will not be done here, but the final

form is the wave equation:

 2u  2u  2u 1  2u
 2 2  2 2
x 2
y z V t

where : V  velocity, a function of  , l , and m

 VELOCITY EQUATIONS USING l AND m
 Here are the equations for velocity derived in their
most basic form using the Lamé coefficients:

l  2m m
VP  Vs 
 

where : l , m  the Lame parameters

and :   density.
 VELOCITY EQUATIONS USING K AND
m
 Another common way of writing the velocity equations
is with bulk and shear modulus:
4
K m
VP  3 m
Vs 
 
where : K  the bulk modulus,
2
l m
3
and m  the shear modulus
=2nd Lame parameter
 POISSON’S RATIO
 A common way of looking at the ratio of VP to VS is to
use Poisson’s ratio, defined as:
 2  VP 
2

  where :    
2  2  VS 

The inverse to the above formula, allowing you to derive VP or VS from ,

is given by:

2  2
 
2  1
 POISSON’S RATIO
 There are several values of Poisson’s
ratio and VP/VS ratio that should be
noted:
If VP/VS = 2, then  = 0

If VP/VS = 1.5, then  = 0.1 (Gas Case)

If VP/VS = 2, then  = 1/3 (Wet Case)

If VP/VS = , then  = 0.5 (VS = 0)

A plot of Poisson’s ratio versus velocity ratio is shown on the next slide.
 Homework 1:

 VP 
2
 2
where :     and  
 VS  2  2

Please, shows that :

In the case of Vs=0, or VP/VS = ,

then  = 0.5
 Vp/Vs vs Poisson's Ratio

0.5
0.4
0.3
Poisson's Ratio

0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Vp/Vs
Gas Case Wet Case Russell, 2002
A plot of Poisson’s ratio versus P and S wave velocity ratio
 VELOCITY IN POROUS ROCKS
 Velocity effects can be modeled by the bulk average
equation as seen below and in the next figure:

t a  t m(1  )  tw Sw   t hc(1  Sw )

where : t  1/ V

Unfortunately, the above equation does not hold for gas sands, and
this lead to the development of other equations.
 Velocity vs Sw with Volume Avg. Eq.
Por = 33% , Voil = 1300 m/s, Vgas = 300 m/s
3500

3000
Velocity (m/sec)

2500

2000

1500

1000
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Oil Gas Water Saturation
Russell, 2002
 Other empirical equations have been
proposed:

VP  (1   )2 Vm  Vfl Raymer et al.

VP ( km / s )  5.59  6.93  2.18C

VS ( km / s )  3.52  4.91  1.89C

Han et al, where: C = Volume Clay

Content
However, the best fit to observation has been obtained with the Biot-
Gassmann equations.
 THE BIOT-GASSMANN EQUATIONS
 Independently, Gassmann (1951) and Biot (1956),
developed the theory of wave propagation in fluid
saturated rocks, by deriving expressions for the
saturated bulk and shear modulii, and substituting
into the regular equations for P- and S-wave velocity:

4
K sat  m sat m sat
VP  3 Vs 
 sat  sat

Note that sat is found using the volume average equation discussed
earlier.
 BIOT-GASSMANN - SHEAR MODULUS
 In the Biot-Gassmann equations, the shear modulus
does not change for varying saturation at constant
porosity:
m sat  m dry

where : m  shear modulus of saturated rock

sat
m  shear modulus of dry rock
dry
 BIOT-GASSMANN - SATURATED BULK
MODULUS
 The Biot-Gassmann bulk modulus equation is
as follows: K dry 2
(1  )
Km
K sat  K dry 
 1   K dry
(1)
  2
K fl Km Km

Mavko et al, in The Rock Physics Handbook, re-arranged the above

equation to give a more intuitive form:

K sat K dry K fl
  (2)
K m  K sat K m  K dry  ( K m  K fl )

Where sat = saturated rock, dry = dry frame, m = rock matrix, fl = fluid,
and  = porosity.
 The Saturated Bulk Modulus (Ksat) is
affected by:

 Rock frame bulk modulus (Kdry)

 Porosity
 Fluid bulk modulus (Kfl)
- Saturation
- Temperature
- Pore Pressure
 Effective Pressure
- Overburden – Pore pressure
 Mineral bulk modulus
 BIOT-GASSMANN - SHEAR BULK MODULUS
& DENSITY
 Saturated Shear Modulus (msat)
 Is Equal to Rock frame shear
modulus (mdry)
 Porosity
 Effective Pressure
 Overburden – Pore pressure

 Saturated Density (sat) depends on

 Rock matrix density (m)
 Porosity
 Fluid density
 - Saturation
 - Temperature

 - Pore Pressure
 THE ROCK MATRIX BULK MODULUS
We will now look at how to get estimates of the various bulk modulus
terms in the Biot-Gassmann equations, starting with the bulk modulus of
the solid rock matrix. Values will be given in gigaPascals (GPa), which
are equivalent to 1010 dynes/cm2.

 The bulk modulus of the solid rock matrix, Km is

usually taken from published data that involved
measurements on drill core samples. Typical
values are:

Ksandstone = 40 GPa,

Klimestone = 60 GPa.
 THE FLUID BULK MODULUS
 The fluid bulk modulus can be modeled using the
following equation:

1 Sw 1  Sw
 
K fl K w K hc
where : K  bulk modulus of water ,
w
K  bulk modulus of hydrocarbon.
hc
Equations for estimating the values of brine, gas, and oil bulk modulii are
given in Batzle and Wang, 1992, Seismic Properties of Pore Fluids,
Geophysics, 57, 1396-1408. Typical values are:

Kgas = 0.021 GPa, Koil = 0.79 GPa, Kw = 2.38 GPa

 ESTIMATING KDRY
For known VS and VP, Kdry can be calculated by first calculating Ksat
and then using Mavko’s equation.

 For known VP, but unknown VS, Kdry can be

estimated (Gregory, 1977) by assuming the dry rock
Poisson’s ratio dry. Gregory shows that equation (1)
can be rewritten as:

K dry 2
(1  )
Km where : M sat  K sat  4 / 3 m ,
M sat  M dry  M dry  K dry  4 / 3 m  SK dry ,
 1   K dry
  2 3(1   dry )
K fl Km Km and : S 
(1   dry )
 ESTIMATING KDRY
 After a lot of algebra, the previous equation can be
written as the following quadratic equation for a
term that involves Kdry. Solving for b gives the
solution.
ab  bb  b  0
2

K dry
where : b  the Biot coefficient  1  ,
Km
a  S  1,
 Km  M
b  S   1   S  sat
K  Km
 fl 
 M sat  K m 
c    S    1
 
 K m  K fl 
 POROSITY CHANGE
 Porosity affects the dry rock bulk modulus, and this
effect can be computed by using the following
equation:
where: KP = pore bulk modulus
 1 1
 
K P K dry K m
If we assume that the pore bulk modulus stays constant for a range of
porosities, but the dry rock bulk modulus changes as a function of
porosity, we can compute a new dry rock bulk modulus for a different
porosity using the following re-arranged version of the above equation:

1 new1
 
K dry _ new KP Km
 DATA EXAMPLES

 In the next few slides, we will look at the computed

responses for both a gas-saturated sand and an oil-
saturated sand using the Biot-Gassmann equation.

 We will look at the effect of saturation on both

velocity (VP and VS) and Poisson’s Ratio.

 Keep in mind that this model assumes that the gas

is uniformly distributed in the fluid. Patchy
saturation provides a different function. (See Mavko
et al: The Rock Physics Handbook.)
 Velocity vs Sw - Gas Case, Por = 33% Poisson's Ratio vs Water Saturation
Ks = 40, Kgas = .021, Kdry = 3.25, Mu = 3.3 GPa Gas Case
2600 0.5
2400

Poisson's Ratio
2200 0.4
Velocity (m/s)

2000 0.3
1800
1600 0.2
1400 0.1
1200
1000 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Vp Vs Sw Poisson's Ratio Sw

Velocity vs Sw - Oil Case Poisson's Ratio vs Water Saturation

Porosity = 33%, Koil = 1.0 MPa Oil Case
3000 0.5

0.4
2500

Poisson's Ratio
Velocity (m/s)

0.3
2000
0.2

1500 0.1

1000 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Vs Vp Sw Poisson's Ratio Sw
Russell, 2002
 EFFECT OF WATER SATURATION
Gas Sand ( Phi = 33% )
0.5

0.4

100
0.3

99
POISSON'S
RATIO 98
0.2 96
94
90
75
50 0
0.1

0
0 2 4

P-WAVE VELOCITY (km/sec) Russell, 2002

Another way of displaying the data is on a two parameter
plot. Here, Poisson’s ratio is plotted against P-wave velocity.
 THE MUDROCK LINE
 The mudrock line is a linear relationship between VP and VS
derived by Castagna et al (1985):

VP  1.16VS  1360m/s

Note that for a constant Poisson’s ratio, the intercept is zero:

2  2
VP  VS
2  1
ARCO’s original mudrock derivation
(Castagna et al, Geophysics, 1985)
 THE MUDROCK LINE
5000
 = 1/3 or Mudrock Line
VP/VS = 2
4000

3000
Gas Sand
VP (m/s)

2000
 = 0.1 or
VP/VS = 1.5
1000

Russell, 2002
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
VS(m/s)
A display of the Mudrock line and the dry rock line on a
Poisson’s ratio versus P-wave velocity plot.

Russell, 2002
 Tips for Using of Gassmann’s Equation
Km: Mineral Term
“Text book” values have been measured on pure mineral samples
(crystals).
For rocks composed of mixed lithologies: Mineral values can be averaged
using Reuss averaging to estimate Km

Kdry: Rock Frame

Represents the incompressibility of the rock frame (including cracks and
pores).
Often pressure dependent due to cracks closing with increased effective
pressure.
Difficult to obtain accurate values in many cases.
Laboratory measurements of representative core plugs under reservoir
pressure may be the best source of data.
 CAUTIONS:

 Rocks with large Km and Kdry values (most

carbonates)
 appear insensitive to saturation changes in
Gassmann theory.

 Gassmann assumed that pore pressure remains

constant
 during wave propagation. This implies fluids are
mobile
 between pores and all stress is carried by Kdry.

 This assumption is violated at “high frequencies” in

highly
 FLUID REPLACEMENT MODELING
(FRM)
 Estimates VP, VS and density changes that occur
when saturation changes.

 FRM requires:
 Top and bottom depth of the reservoir
 P wave velocity log
 Porosity and/or density information
 Shear wave velocity information (log or estimate)
 Saturation information (consistent with input well
logs)
 Rock matrix information (from mineral tables)
 Fluid properties (From B-W fluid calculator)
 Input P wave and Density Information:

 FRM operates on the log data on a sample by sample

basis.

 Areas with low porosity, or high shale content should

be excluded using gamma ray, density or porosity cut-
offs

 Density and porosity information are required. This

information must be consistent.

 FRM can accept:

 - Density log with saturation data, matrix and fluid
densities (porosity is calculated)
 - Porosity log with saturation data, matrix and fluid
densities (density log is calculated)
 - Density and porosity logs with saturation data and fluid
 Shear Wave Information:

 Shear wave information is required to calculate Kdry

from the saturated P wave log information.

 Shear wave information can come from:

 Dipole Shear wave sonic logs
 Estimated S-wave velocity logs using the ARCO mudrock
line
 Dry rock Poisson’s ratio (try values from .12 to .25 for
sandstones)

 The Mudrock line underestimates S wave velocities in

unconsolidated, highly porous sands. This may result
in incorrect estimates of the dry rock Poisson’s ratio
and Kdry.
 Water Saturation Information:

 Watersaturation for the initial reservoir conditions

may be provided as a constant value or as a log.

 Saturation information must agree with the recorded

sonic log and density values.

 Thesonic tool measures the fastest travel path from

source to receiver. In many cases, the sonic velocity
represents the flushed well bore annulus rather than
the hydrocarbon saturation formation.

 Petrophysicistscan provide water saturation logs that

represent the conditions of the invaded region.
Detailed Steps Assuming Castagna’s Equation for Wet Sands:

1) Calculate density for 100% brine saturation:

 wet  br    m  1   
2) Calculate input P wave modulus:

M  VP  
2

3) Calculate matrix P wave modulus:

4
Mm  Km  m m
3
4) Adjust P wave modulus to 100% water:

M Kfl Kbr Mm
d   Mwet  d *
Mm  M  *( Mm  Kfl )  *( Mm  Kbr ) 1 d

5) Calculate VP_wet
Mwet
VPwet 
 wet

6) Calculate VS_wet from VP_wet

VS wet  Ac VPwet  Bc
7) Calculate VS_input from VS_wet
 wet
VS  VSwet *

8) Calculate K and m from input data:
4
m  VS 2 *  ; K   *VP 2  *m
3
9) Obtain Kdry:
K Kfl
a 
Km  K  * ( Km  Kfl )
a
Kdry  Km *
1 a
10) Calculate Ksat with new fluid:

Kdry out Kfl out a

a  out K out  Km *
Km  Kdry out
 *( Km  Kfl out ) 1 a
11) Get new density:

 out
  fl out
* out
  m *(1   ) out

12) Finally – the new velocities!

K out 4 out
 m m out
VP out
 3 ; VS out 
out
 out
 Quality Control of the FRM Result
Check dry rock Poisson’s ratio of first sample on last FRM panel.

Use QC plot option on FRM final panel to produce displays.

Display error log to check for reported problems.

Dry rock Poisson’s ratio should be:

Range Mean
Clastics 0.05 to 0.25
Limestones 0.25 to 0.35 0.31
Dolomites 0.16 to 0.32 0.27

Dry rock bulk modulus should be:

Range Mean
Clastics 2 to 20
Limestones 25 to 60 38
Dolomites 25 to 60 45
When problems occur, check for the following:

Noisy log data (try filter and resample)

Saturation data not representative (try Sw = 100%)
Shear data not representative (try VP/VS = 2.0)
Low porosity and shaly zones (Use exclusions and copy from input log)
All models assume simple quartz/clay sand.

Gas substituted for

brine for varying Sw

FRM – Log, Fluid and

Matrix definition
 Sw elastic offset synthetics
 SUMMARY
 An understanding of rock physics is crucial for the
interpretation of seismic amplitude anomalies.

 The volume average equation can be used to model

density in a water sand, but this equation does not
match observations for velocities in a gas sand.

 The Biot-Gassmann equations match observations

well for unconsolidated gas sands.

 When dealing with more complex porous media

with patchy saturation, or fracture type porosity
(e.g. carbonates), the Biot-Gassmann equations do
not hold well.
GELOMBANG
GEMPA

Source: Steven Dutch,

University of Wisconsin
– Green Bay
PUSAT DAN EPISENTER GEMPA
SEBARAN DARI PUSAT GEMPA
ZONA GEMPA PADA BATAS LEMPENG
JENIS GELOMBANG GEMPA/SEISMIK

1. Gelombang Bodi: -Primer/Pressure (P)

-Sekunder/Shear (S)

2. Gelombang Permukaan: -Rayleigh

-Love

Perbedaan waktu tempuh berkaitan dengan

Perbedaan sifat medium
KECEPATAN GELOMBANG P DAN S

Vp = √(λ+2μ)/ρ

Vs = √(μ/ρ)

λ = konstanta Lame
μ = rigiditas
ρ = densitas
 Mantle Outer core Inner core

Speed (km/s), Density (g/cc)

Vp

Vs
STRUKTUR,
KECEPATAN&DENSITAS Density

Radius (km)

PREM (Dziewonski and Anderson, 1981)

GERAK GELOMBANG P DAN
GELOMBANG S

http://www.eas.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/slinky/slinky4.doc
GERAK GELOMBANG PERMUKAAN

http://www.eas.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/slinky/slinky4.doc
METODA SEISMIK
 Seismik Refleksi
- Memetakan struktur dalam bumi secara detail
- Eksplorasi hidrokarbon
 Pengambilan data seismik di darat

horizon seismik memperlihatkan perubahan densitas

dan interpretasi geologi bawah permukaan

Lithology change
Angular
unconformity
Lithology change
Seismic acquisition
Seismik offshore
di laut
 Reflection – rays bounce at an interface
source geophones

depth

Slope is curved – function of

velocity and distance
 Rc = (Z2-Z1)/(Z1+Z2)
Source wavelet Synthetic
Z=densitas x kec
(Ricker) seismogram
*
1 V1
Rc1 (0.15)
2 V 2
Rc2 (0.3) =
3 V 3
Rc3 (0.1)
4 V 4
Rc3 (-0.1)

5 V 5 -0.25 0.25
“stick-gram”

Reflectivity series wavelet

[0,0,0,0.15,0,0,0,0.3,0,0,0,0.1,0,0,0,-0.1] * [0,1,0,-2,0,1,0] = […..]

Spacing between Rc corresponds to two-way P wave travel time through layer at

same sample rate as wavelet
Well tie to seismic
EakringVillage
Eakring Village
(projected)
(projected)

-0.2

-0.1

0.0

Base Permian 150 ms

0.1 Base Permian 150 ms

0.2

0.3

Potential
Blackshale Coal
0.4 reservoir
Blackshale
240 ms Coal
interval
240 ms
0.5
Two Way Time (TWT) in Seconds

Near Top
Dinantian
500 ms

1.0
 Rock velocities (km/s)
Rock 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Alluvium ************
Sand *********
Mud ******
Shale **************
*****************************
************************
***********************
Sandstone *************************************
******************************
**************************
********************************
**********************
Limestone **********************************
**************************************
***************************
*********************************
********************************************
Dolomite **************************************
**********************
Anhydrite **********************
Gypsum ****************
Salt **************
Granite ********************
Gabbro ***********
Adapted from Sheriff and Geldart, 1995
TABEL BEBERAPA HARGA KECEPATAN GELOMBANG SEISMIK
(REYNOLD, 1997)

Material VP (m/s)

Air 1450 - 1530
Tanah 100 - 500
Humus 300 - 600
Lempung 1000 - 2500
Lumpur/lempung danau 300 - 1800
Aluvium sungai 1800 - 2200
Batu garam 4000 - 5500
Gneis 3500 - 7600
Granit 4600 - 6200

GAMBARAN SESAR

Sand

Laterite
 Seismik Refraksi
- Pemetaan struktur dangkal
- Menafsirkan kedalaman dan kecepatan
gelombang setiap lapisan
- Pemetaan lapisan keras (bed rock) dibawah
tanah lapuk
 oscilloscope
SEISMIC REFRACTION
ASTM D 5777

Note: Vp1 < Vp2

Determine depth t1
to rock layer, zR t2
Vertical Geophones
t3
Source
(Plate) t4

x1
x2
x3
Soil: Vp1
zR x4

Rock: Vp2
PULSE DISPERSION
…pulse changes shape
As distance increases…

* •Surface waves disperse several hundred %

•Body waves (direct/refracted/reflected) <1%
Z1 = a depth of the top layer
Ti = intercept time for i layer
V1 = P-waves velocity in the first layer
V2 = P-waves velocity in the second layer
 Direct waves – rays go straight (pretty much)
source geophones

depth

Slope is equal to 1/velocity

 Refraction – rays travel along an interface
source geophones

depth

Slope is equal to 1/velocity

(with gaps)
 Horizontal Soil Layer over Rock

T ra v e l T im e (s e c o n d s )
0.020
xc Vp2  Vp1
zc 
2 Vp2  Vp1
0.015 1
Vp2 = 4880
0.010 m/s

xc = 15.0 m
0.005
1 Depth to Rock:
Vp1 = 1350 zc = 5.65 m
m/s
t values

0.000
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance From Source (meters)
x values
 PONDASI BANGUNAN

Tiang pancang stop

Target: Lapisan keras
pada kedalaman 20 m

Pondasi yg diinginkan
Terima kasih