APPLIED HYDROLOGY

 COURSE OUTLINES
 WEEK-1: INTRODUCTION TO
HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES
OF PAKISTAN: Definition of hydrology,
Water Resources in Pakistan, Hydrologic Cycle,
Water Budget of a catchment, Introduction of
Dams and Barrages.
 WEEK-2, 3:
 PRECIPITATION: Types of precipitation,
Factors affecting precipitation, Measurement of
precipitation, Analysis of precipitation data.
 ASSIGNMENT-1 WRITE A NOTE ON
WATER RESOURCES OF PAKISTAN
(SPECIFY ON-GOING PROJECTS)
 WEEK-4, 5
 EVAPORATION: Factors affecting
evaporation, Measurement of evaporation and
analysis. Introduction and measurement of
evapotranspiration.
 QUIZ-1
 INFILTRATION: Factors affecting infiltration,
estimation and analysis of infiltration.
 WEEK- 6,7:
 STREAM GAUGING: Water stage and its
measurement, selection of site for stage record,
and control, Measurement of stream flow,
Analysis of stream flow data.
 WEEK- 8: MIDSEMESTER EXAMINATION
 WEEK- 9,10 : HYDROGRAPH: Characteristics of
a hydrograph, components of hydrograph and their
separation, factors affecting shape of hydrograph,
unit hydrograph, S-curve synthesis of hydrograph,
instantaneous hydrograph,
 QUIZ-2
 WEEK-11, 12
 FLOOD ROUTING:
 Introduction and importance of flood routing,
hydrologic routing, hydraulic routing.
 ASSIGNMENT-3 DEVELOP UNIT
HYDROGRAPH AND SYNTHETIC UNIT
HYDROGRAPH FOR ANY CATCHMENT
OF PAKISTAN.
 FLOOD FREQUENCY ANALYSIS:
 Introduction, probability concepts, return period,
different types
 of distribution, Frequescy analysis illustration.
 QUIZ-3
 WEEK-13, 14, 15, 16
 GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY:-
 Sourse and discharge of Ground Water, Types
of subsoil Strata,
 Theme formula and its application.
 INTRODUCTION TO MODELING:-
 Physcical Models. Analogue Models and
Numerical Models.
ASSIGNMENTS+ CLASS PROJECT
 ASSIGNMENT-1 WRITE A NOTE ON
WATER RESOURCES OF PAKISTAN (ON
GOING PROJECTS)
 ASSIGNMENT-2 PREPARE DEPTH
AREA DURATION CURVES FOR ANY
PAKISTANI CATCHMENT
 ASSIGNMENT-3 DEVELOP UNIT
HYDROGRAPH AND SYNTHETIC UNIT
HYDROGRAPH FOR ANY CATCHMENT
OF PAKISTAN.
 CLASS PROJECT ??????????
 BOOKS
 TITLE AUTHOR
 HYDROLOGY FOR ENGINEERS (LINSLEY)
 ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY (V. M. PONCE)
 ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY (K. SUBRAMANYA)
 SURFACE WATER HYDROLOGY (N. M. AWAN)
 ELEMENTARY HYDROLOGY (V. P. SINGH)
 APPLIED HYDROLOGY (V. CHOW)
 INTRODUCTION TO HYDROLOGY (WIESSMAN)
 APPLIED HYDROLOGY (SEN, ZEKAI)
 GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY (TODD)
 HYDROLOGY -
BASIC CONCEPTS
Hydrology, Engineering Hydrology, Need for the
Hydrologic Studies, Importance of Hydrology in
Civil Engineering, Major Aspects of Hydrology,
Sciences Involved, Major Hydrologic Projects ,
Questions Which A Hydrologist has to Answer,
Hydrologic Cycle, Hydrologic Equation,
Application of Hydrology to Environmental
Problems
 Hydrology
 Hydrology is the science of the waters of the
earth and its atmosphere. It deals with
occurrence, circulation, distribution and
movements of these waters over the globe and
their interaction with the physical and biological
environments.
 Engineering Hydrology
 Engineering hydrology is the branch of
hydrology which deals with estimation of water
resources and related hydrologic quantities. It
also investigates hydrologic problems such as
floods and droughts, and develops strategies to
mitigate them.
Need for the Hydrologic Studies
 The need of the hydrologic studies arises from
the following problems:
 Uncertainty of precipitation and its seasonal
occurrence
 Seasonal flow of rivers, and

 Population growth and rising standards of living

Continued….
Need for the Hydrologic Studies
 In many countries water is the main source of energy
and the agriculture is an important sector for their
economic growth. Although water is vital to life, but
the precipitation which is the main source of water, is
an uncertain phenomenon i. e. there might be plenty of
rainfall when we do not need it and no rain when it is
required. So we need to plan accordingly. It is necessary
to store surplus water when and where available and to
use it when and where required. Uncertainty of
precipitation makes the study of various features of
hydrology exceedingly important, which then will be
helpful in better planning and development of water
resources.
Continued….
Need for the Hydrologic Studies
 The flow in rivers varies from season to season. There
are low flows during lean period and high flows during
floods. The floods although bringing fertile silts, but are
hazardous to human life and property. Flood mitigation
is necessary to safeguard human life, livestock, cash
crops and against spread of disease.
 The increased population and rising standards of living
have greatly increased the demands of water.
Hydrologic studies are of utmost importance for
planning and development of water resources to meet
these demands.
 Importance of Hydrology in Civil
Engineering
 Hydrology has an important role in the design and
operation of water resources engineering projects like
irrigation, flood control, water supply schemes,
hydropower projects and navigation. Many important
civil engineering projects have failed because of
improper assessment of hydrologic aspects of the
projects. Hydraulic structures which are very important
civil engineering projects and cost millions of dollars
may fail due to improper hydrologic design.

Continued….
 Importance of Hydrology in Civil
Engineering
 For example, a dam may fail due to inadequate spillway
capacity. There may be reservoir operational problems
due to lack of hydrologic data like probable inflows,
evaporation and seepage. There might be failure of a
bridge or a culvert if its maximum design flood is not
estimated properly. Construction of a dam may cause
problem for bridges upstream and downstream if
proper hydrologic studies regarding floods and erosion
downstream are not estimated and taken into account
in design. Groundwater studies are important for
installation of tube wells and irrigation projects. These
are just a few examples which show the importance of
hydrologic studies for civil engineering projects.
 Major Aspects of Hydrology
 The main jobs of a hydrologist are collection
and analysis of data, and making predictions out
of this analysis.
 Collection of Data
 The hydrologic data comprises:
 a. Rainfall Data
 b. Snowfall and Snowmelt Data
 c. Runoff Data (Catchment Runoff and Stream Flows),
and
 d. Groundwater Data

Continued….
 Major Aspects of Hydrology
 Analysis of Data
 Analysis of hydrologic data includes checking it for
consistency and homogeneity as well as finding its various
statistical parameters.
 Prediction
 Prediction means finding design values and maximum
possible floods and droughts. Various approaches for
prediction of hydrologic values are:
 Statistical Approach
 Physical Approach
 Deterministic Approach
 Sciences Involved
 Hydrology is a very broad subject and it needs
support from allied sciences such as Physics,
Mathematics, Geology, Geography,
Meteorology, Forestry, Agriculture and
Hydraulics.
 Major Hydrologic Projects
 Engineering Hydrology provides hydrologic data
essentially required for a variety of projects, such as:
 Hydraulic Structures like Dams, Bridges, Head-works,
Spillways and Culverts etc.
 Hydroelectric Power Generation
 Flood Control Projects
 Irrigation Projects
 Environmental Pollution Control, and
 Planning and Execution of Water Resources Development
Projects

Continued….
 Major Hydrologic Projects
Following is an exhaustive list of projects dealt with in
Hydrology:
 Design of:
 Surface water reservoirs
 Groundwater reservoirs
 Urban storm water sewers and airport drainage systems
 Urban water distribution systems
 Flood control structures (Dikes, River Improvement Works,
etc.)
 Navigational systems (Locks, Ports, etc.)
 Agricultural drainage systems
 Temporary construction and mining drainage systems

Continued….
 Major Hydrologic Projects
 Design of:
 Tunnels and underground excavations
 Flow control systems for highway development
 Hydraulic structures (Bridges, Culverts, Dams, Barrages)
 Open channels and other river flow control structures
 Flood waves propagation
 Soil conservation
 Sanitary landfills and waste disposal facilities
 Contaminated-soil remedial systems
 Polluted-aquifer containment or restoration systems

Continued….
 Major Hydrologic Projects
 Management of:
 Rivers, lakes, wetlands, estuaries and aquifers
 Crops, forests and pasture lands

Continued….
 Major Hydrologic Projects
 Prediction and Forecasting of:
 Contamination effects on rivers and lakes
 Contamination propagation in soils and groundwater
 Effect of drainage on flood flows
 Environmental impact of water resources projects
 Environmental impact of deforestation
 Environmental impact of urbanization
 Environmental impact of chemical spills
 Environmental impact of chemical leaks from tanks
 Environmental impact of leachates from landfills
 Environmental impact of pesticide application
 Environmental impact of global climate change
 Flood waves propagation
 Questions - A Hydrologist has to
Answer
 Some of the typical questions that a hydrologist has to
answer are:
 Is the flow of stream sufficient to meet the needs of a city or
industry seeking the water supply, or an irrigation project, or
a proposed water resource development, or navigation, or
recreation?
 Would a reservoir be required in connection with any of the
proposed uses and if so, what should be its capacity?
 In the design of a flood protection system a barrage, a culvert
or a spillway for a dam, what is the design flood that may be
expected to occur with any specified frequency?

Continued….
Questions - A Hydrologist has to
Answer
 What would be the effect of draining an upland area
or a marshy region upon the flow of stream from the
water shed?
 How would certain changes, removal of forests etc.,
affect the ground water level or the stream flow
from such an area?

Continued….
 Questions - A Hydrologist has to
Answer
 In order to answer the above and other similar
questions work is undertaken in three phases (as
also explained), which are collection of data,
analysis of data and making predictions out of
this analysis.
 The data that must be collected includes stream
flow records, precipitation records, topographic
maps, groundwater data, evaporation data and
transpiration data.
 Hydrologic Cycle
 Journey of water from the ocean to atmosphere and back to the
earth and ultimately to the ocean through the processes of
evaporation, precipitation, percolation, runoff and return to the
ocean is called hydrologic cycle. The importance of hydrologic
cycle in hydrology is such that Hydrology is also briefly defined
as the science of hydrologic cycle.
 Figure 1.1 shows a schematic flow chart of the hydrologic cycle.
Though the actual hydrologic cycle is quite complex, this figure
just broadly depicts the sequence of major events of the cycle.
The hydrologic cycle can be broadly divided into two phases -
land phase, and atmospheric phase.

Continued….
 Hydrologic Cycle
 Before discussing the two phases of hydrologic cycle,
some of the related terms are defined below:
 Infiltration
 Precipitation falling on the ground is, to some extent,
absorbed by the land. This absorption of precipitation water
by land from the surface of earth is called infiltration.
 Interception
 A part of the precipitation is obstructed by vegetation and
temporarily remains there. This process is called interception.
Later the intercepted water is either evaporated or infiltrated.
 Hydrologic Cycle
Atmosphere

Precipitation

Direct Runoff

Infiltration Evaporation
Ground Water
Flow

Interception

Surface Storage

Sea
Continued….
 Hydrologic Cycle
 Depression Storage
 A part of precipitation is stored in depressions on the
catchment area. This is called depression storage.
 Detention Storage
 When the precipitation occurs for a longer duration and at a
rate greater than the rate of infiltration some water is
collected on the surface of the earth up to a certain depth.
On attaining a certain depth, the action of gravity makes this
water flow. Before it starts flowing, the water stored on the
surface of earth is called detention storage.

Continued….
 Hydrologic Cycle
 Runoff
 After the detention storage is built up, as explained
above, the water will start flowing over the ground
and is called runoff.
 Inter Flow
 The part of infiltrated water which moves laterally
through the upper soil layers above the groundwater
level and soon joins the stream is called inter flow.

Continued….
 Hydrologic Cycle
 Total Runoff
 A part of infiltrated water moves in the form of inter flow
which soon joins the stream, the remaining portion of
infiltrated water percolates to deeper layers of the ground and
is stored as groundwater. This groundwater sometimes also
joins the stream flow through springs and seepage process.
The stream flow is then called the total runoff i. e. it is sum
of all the components of precipitation water. Direct runoff
plus the losses gives total runoff.
 The runoff can be expressed in depth units for a certain area
or it can be expressed in volume units. It can also be
expressed in discharge units for a specified time.

Continued….
 Hydrologic Cycle
 Atmospheric Phase of Hydrologic Cycle
 Atmospheric phase of hydrologic cycle starts with the formation of
clouds after vaporization from water bodies and ends after the occurrence
of precipitation.
 Land Phase of Hydrologic Cycle
 After occurrence of precipitation, water comes in contact with the earth
surface and hydrologic cycle enters the land phase. Part of precipitation is
infiltrated and a part of it, depending upon circumstances, is intercepted
by trees and vegetation. If there are depressions in the surface upon
which precipitation falls, a part of precipitation will be stored in the
depressions in the form of depression storage. All of these parts are liable
to vaporization. Rainwater stands on the surface of earth where it falls,
after various losses, depending upon the rate of rainfall

Continued….
 Hydrologic Cycle
 When the depth of standing water becomes sufficient it starts
flowing over the ground surface in the form of surface
runoff. During the travel of surface runoff towards streams,
again a part of water is infiltrated and a part of it is
evaporated. A part of infiltrated water moves laterally
through the upper soil layers above the groundwater level, in
the form of interflow which soon joins the stream flow. The
remaining portion of infiltrated water percolates to deeper
layers of the ground and is stored as groundwater. Sometimes
this ground water joins the stream flow through spring or
seepage process. The stream flow is then called the total
runoff. The total runoff from the streams goes back to the
oceans subjected to vaporization throughout its travel. The
depression storage is either evaporated or infiltrated into the
ground and similar is the case of interception. The ground
water also may go to oceans after a long time.
Continued….
 Hydrologic Cycle
 Example 1.1
 A precipitation measuring 125 mm occurred over a catchment. If
the infiltration, interception, depression storage and other losses
are 50 mm, find direct runoff and total runoff.
Solution
Precipitation P = 125 mm
Losses L = 50 mm
Direct runoff (DRO) = P – L = 125 – 50 = 75 mm
Total runoff = DRO + L = 75+50 = 125 mm
 Note that ‘x’ inches of runoff means that water is spread
uniformly over the catchment having ‘x’ inches depth. Runoff in
volume units can be obtained by multiplying the depth with the
area of the catchment.
 Hydrologic Equation
 The hydrologic equation states that for a given time interval, difference of
inflow to and outflow from a system is equal to change of storage of the
system. In its differential form it states that rate of volume inflow minus the
rate of volume outflow is equal to the rate of change of storage.
 Mathematically
I - O = ∆S/∆t Eq.1.1
Where,
I = Rate of volume inflow (volume/time), measured in
m3/sec, ft3/sec, etc.
O = Rate of volume outflow (volume/time) measured in
m3/sec, ft3/sec, etc.
∆S/∆t = Rate of change of storage in time (‘S’ represents
storage and ‘t’ represents time i.e. Volume/time)
 The above equation is a storage equation which only approximates some
hydrologic processes.

Continued….
 Hydrologic Equation
 Components of Inflow
 There are two components of inflow, viz.
 precipitation over the catchment and reservoir, and
 surface or groundwater flow from other catchment areas.

 Components of Outflow
 Three components of outflow are:
 surface evaporation
 groundwater seepage, and
 direct runoff i.e water taken for irrigation or to spill ways
for producing power

Continued….
 Hydrologic Equation
 If we fix the time and take the volume units, then the
hydrologic equation can be written as,
Total volume inflow – The volume outflow = Total change in volume of the system
 This is hydrologic or storage equation. It is used in
many different ways. If, for example, assuming inflow
changes linearly from ‘I1’ to ‘I2’ in time ‘∆t’, the
outflow changes linearly from ‘O1’ to ‘O2’ and storage
changes from ‘S1’ to ‘S2’ in this time, the equation can
be written as:
( I1 + I2 ) / 2 - ( O1 + O2 ) / 2 = ( S2 – S1 ) / ∆t- - - - - Eq. 1.2

Continued….
 Hydrologic Equation
 If we fix time ‘∆t’ and talk about total inflow in certain time ‘∆t’,
total outflow and total change in storage in that time, the
hydrologic equation can be written as:
Volume inflow-Volume outflow = Total change in storage
 If further, we fix the area of the system (for example, we talk of a
catchment) and assume inflow as precipitation ‘p’, the outflow as
the losses ‘L’ and runoff ‘R’ then the equation can be written as:
P – L – R = D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Eq. 1.3
Where ‘D’ is the depression storage.
 This concept is further applied to discuss the water budget of a
catchment.

Continued….
 Example 1.2
 Flow of River Chenab at Marala Barrage varied
linearly from 34 cumec (m3/sec) to
283 cumec in 10-hours during a flood. The flow
variation at Khanki Barrage, downstream of Marala
was observed to be from 28 to 255 cumec during the
above mentioned time. Assuming no lateral flow in
or out of the reach, find out the rate of change of
storage of the river reach between Marala and
Khanki. What is total change in storage of the reach
in this period?
Continued….
Solution
I1 = 34 cumec I2 = 283 cumec
O1 = 28 cumec O2 = 255 cumec
I = ( I1 + I2 ) / 2 = ( 34 + 283 ) / 2 = 158.5 cumec
O = ( O1 + O2 ) / 2 = ( 28 + 255 ) = 141.5 cumec
∆S/∆t = ?
According to hydrologic equation
( I1 + I2 ) /2 - ( O1 + O2 ) / 2 = ∆S/∆t
158.5 - 141.5 = ∆S/∆t = 17 cumec
∆t = 10 hours = 10 x 60 x 60 = 36,000 sec
Total change in storage = ∆S = (∆S/∆t) x ∆t
= 17 x 36,000 = 612 x 10³ m3

Continued….
 Example 1.3
 Water at a constant rate of 370 cumec was observed
to be entering into Tarbela Reservoir in a certain
season. If outflow from the reservoir including
infiltration and evaporation losses is 280 cumec, find
out the change in storage of reservoir for 10 such
days. Also convert your answer into Hectare-Meter.

Continued….
Solution
I = 370 cumec
O = 280 cumec
ΔS = ?
According to hydrologic equation,
I - O = ΔS / Δt
370 – 280 = ΔS / Δt =90 cumec
Δt=10 x 24 = 240 hours = 240 x 60 x 60 = 864x10³ sec
Total change in storage = ΔS = (ΔS / Δt) x Δt
=90 x 864x10³ = 777.6x104 m3
=777.6x104/104=777.6 Hectare-m
 Water Budget in a Catchment
 The water budget of a catchment is similar to budget of a
country. The water budget in a catchment can be given by
hydrologic equation. If we take the inflow as the precipitation ‘P’
on the ground surface , outflow as interception losses ‘Li’,
surface runoff ‘R’ and evaporation ‘Le’ and the change in
storage due to Infiltration ‘F’ and Depression storage ‘D’, the
hydrologic equation is expressed as:
P - ( Li + R + Le ) = D + F
or R = P - ( Li + Le + D + F )
R = P- The Losses.
R=P-L

Continued….
 Water Budget in a Catchment
 If all the quantities on right-hand-side of the
above equation could be measured, the surface
runoff of a given catchment as result of a known
precipitation could easily be determined. But
unfortunately, it is very difficult to get these
values directly. The hydrologists have therefore
evolved a number of direct and indirect
techniques to find the rainfall - runoff
relationship described by the above equation.
Continued….
 Example 1.4
 A part of catchment area of Hub River measuring 78
km² received 100 mm of rainfall in 3 hours due to a
storm. A drainage stream joins this part of
catchment to the Hub River. The stream was dry
before rainfall and there was flow in the stream for a
period of 2.5 days with an average discharge of 10
cumec. After the storm runoff, the stream again
became dry. Find the losses, direct runoff and total
runoff in cumec and Hectare-meter.
Continued….
Solution
According to hydrologic equation,
Area of catchment A = 78 km2 =78x106 m2
P = 100 mm =0.1 m
Q = 10 m3/sec
t = 2.5 days = 2.5 24x60x60 sec
Total runoff = PxA = ( 0.1 ) x 78 x 106 = 7.8x106m3
= 7.8x106 / 104 = 780 Hectare-m
DRO = 10x2.5x24x60x60=2.16x106 m3=216Hectare-m
L = P - R = 7.8x106 - 2.16x106 = 5.64x106m3
= 564 Hectare-m

Continued….
 Example 1.5
 Assume that Mangla Reservoir has surface area of 39 sq. km
in the beginning of a certain month and the water depth is
76.20 m for this whole surface of the lake. Further assume
that sides of reservoir are nearly vertical. Now in that month
the reservoir received an average inflow of 226.50 cumec as a
direct runoff, and direct precipitation of 125 mm. The
outflow from the reservoir was 170 cumec and evaporation
and seepage losses were estimated to be 113 mm during that
month. Find out depth of reservoir at the end of that month
and total increase or decrease in the storage.

Continued….
Solution

The hydrologic equation will be applied to solve this water budget related
problem.
Δt = 1 month = 30 x 24 x 60 x 60 = 2.592x106 sec.

Total inflow as direct runoff = I x Δt = 226.50 x 2.592x106 m3

= 587.088x106 m³

Addition from precipitation = precipitation x surface area of reservoir

= (125/10³)x39x106 = 4.875x106 m3
Total outflow = O x Δt = 170 x 2.592x106 = 440.64x106 m3
Losses = ( Evaporation + Seepage ) x Surface area of reservoir
= (113/10³)x39x106 = 4.407x106 m3

Continued….
Now the total change in volume of storage
= total volume of inflow + total volume of precipitation – ( total volume
of outflow + total volume of losses )

= 587.088x106 + 4.875x106 – ( 440.64x106 + 4.407x106 )

= 146.916x106 m3

Change in depth of reservoir = change in storage / surface area

= 146.916x106/ 39x106=3.77 m

Depth at the end of month = depth in the beginning + change in depth

= 76.20 + 3.77 = 79.97 m
 Application of Hydrology to
Environmental Problems
 Most of environmental aspects are directly or indirectly
related to water. Floods have environmental effects,
droughts affect the environment, constructing a dam or
a barrage has environmental effects, groundwater
pollution affects environment. All forms of life are
water-dependent. Land, air and water are interrelated.
As world’s population is increasing, living standards are
rising and the recreational demands are growing, as a
result of which, there are new developments in industry
and food production.

Continued….
 Application of Hydrology to
Environmental Problems
 Due to these man-made activities, water
demands are increasing and the environment is
changing day by day. Planning and development
of sustainable water resources has become a
challenging job for hydrologists. It is very
important to understand the hydrologic process
in order to develop water resources with least
harm to the environment.
 Questions
 Write a note on importance of Hydrology in
Civil Engineering.
 Explain “Hydrologic Cycle”.
 What is Hydrologic Equation?
 What is meant by Catchment Area, Why is it
studied? Do Basin and Watershed mean the
same? Explain.
 Define the term Runoff and describe various
units to express runoff.
 Exercise
 During July, 1996 monthly inflow to Tarbela
Reservoir was 20 billion cubic meters and outflow
was 18.70 billion cubic meters. Find the rate of
change of storage and change in storage during the
period.
 At Basha Reservoir the storage volume is 11,410
million cubic meters at elevation of 1,180 m. If inflow
is 11,500 cubic meters per second. Find the time to
fill the reservoir up to mentioned elevation. Assume
that losses are negligible.
 Exercise
 Mangla Lake had a water surface level of 650 m above a datum
at the beginning of a certain month. In that month the lake
received an average inflow of 250 cumecs. There was an
outflow of 150 cumecs. In the same month, the lake received a
rainfall of 150 mm and the evaporation from the lake surface
was 5 cm. Using hydrologic equation, estimate the water
surface elevation of the lake at the end of the month. Assume
the lake surface area as 450 hectares and that there was no
contribution to or from the groundwater storage.
 A catchment area of 100 Sq. Km. in Gilgit received a rainfall
of 12 cm from a 3-hours storm. At the outlet of the
catchment, a natural stream had a steady flow of 10 cumecs
before the storm and experienced a runoff lasting for 20 hours
with an average discharge value of 90 cumecs. The stream was
again to its original steady state with a flow of 10 cumecs.
Estimate the losses and ratio of runoff to precipitation.