DIGESTIVE

SYSTEM
PREPARED BY:

GROUP 1
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system with the assistance of circulatory system is a

complex set of organs, glands and ducts that work together to transform
food into nutrients for cell.
Functions of Digestive System:
I-D-A-E 
1. Ingestion
2. Digestion
3. Absorption
4. Elimination
Digestive System - it consist of the Digestive Tract or
Gastrointestinal Tract, plus specific associated organs.

The Specific Portion of the Digestive Tract include the:

Oral cavity (mouth)
Pharynx (throat)
Esophagus
Stomach
Small and Large Intestine
Anus
The Specific Associated Organs of the
Digestive Tract are:
 
Salivary Gland (empty in the oral cavity)
Liver and Pancreas ( empty in the small intestine)
Various parts of the Digestive Tract are specialized for
different function like:

•Oral Cavity and Esophagus- are lined with a

stratified epithelium which protects them from
abrasion of chewing and swallowing.
 
 
•Stomach and Intestine- are lined with
columnar epithelium, which is specialized for
absorption of nutrients and secretion of
digestive fluid.
4 MAJOR TUNICS or LAYER of DIGESTIVE TRACT

1. Mucosa- innermost tunic, consist of three layers

• mucous epithelium- the inner
• lamina propia- a loose connective tissue.
• muscularis mucosae- thin outer layer of smooth muscle
2. Submucosa- lies just outside the mucosa, a very thick layer of
loose connective tissue containing nerves, blood vessel and
small glands. An extensive network of nerve cell processes
forms a plexus (network) within submucosa. Autonomic nerves
innervate this plexus.
3. Muscularis- most part of digestive tract it consist of an inner
layer of circular smooth muscle and another layer of longitudinal
smooth muscle. Another nerve plexus of the submucosa and
muscularis compose the enteric nervous system.
 4. Either Serosa or Adventitia - outer most layer of digestive
tract.
• Serosa- consist of the peritoneum, which is a smooth
epithelial layer and its underlying connective tissue.
• Adventitia- region of the digestive tract not covered by
peritoneum are covered by tissue layer.

PERITONEUM - serous membrane that is associated the

abdominal cavity and the abdominal organ.
  Visceral peritoneum- serous membrane that cover the
organ
  Parietal peritoneum- serous membrane that lines the wall
of the abdominal cavity.
 Mesenteries - a connective tissue sheets that holds many of
the organs of the abdominal in place.
- also provides a route for blood vessels and
nerves from the abdominal wall to the organs.
 Mesentery proper- applied specially to the mesentery
associated with small intestine.
 Lesser omentum - mesentery connecting the lesser
curvature of the stomach to the liver and diaphragm.
 Greater omentum - mesentery connecting the greater
curvature of the stomach to the transverse colon and the
posterior wall. The greater omentum that is unusual in that
is a long, double fold mesentery that extend inferiorly from
the stomach before looping back to transverse colon to
create a cavity or pocket called omental bursa.
 Mesentery proper- mesentery that attaches the small
intestine to the posterior abdominal wall other abdominal
organ lies the abdominal wall, have no mesenteries
includes the duodenum, pancreas, ascending colon,
descending colon, rectum, kidney, adrenal gland and
urinary bladder.
 Peritonitis- potentially life threatening inflammation of
ORAL CAVITY ,PHARYNX, AND ESOPHAGUS
Anatomy of the Oral Cavity
The oral cavity - or mouth, is the first part of
the digestive tract. It is bounded by the lips and
cheeks and contains the teeth and tongue.

The lips - are muscular structures, formed

mostly by the orbicularis oris muscle.

The tongue – is a large, muscular organ that

occupies most of the oral cavity. The major
attachment of the tongue is in the posterior part
of the oral cavity. The anterior part of the tongue
is relatively free, except for an anterior
attachment to the floor of the mouth by a thin
fold of tissue called the Frenulum.
The lips and
cheeks are
important in
the process
of
mastification
or chewing.
Mastication
begins the
process of
mechanical
digestion
,which breaks
down large
food particles
Teeth
There are 32 teeth in
the normal adult mouth,
located in the mandible
and maxillae. The teeth
can be divided into
quadrants:right upper,
left upper, right lower,
and left lower.

In adults, each quadrant

contains one central and
one lateral incisor(to
cut); one canine(dog);
first ,second and third
molars.
The third Molars is called the wisdom tooth.
The teeth of adults are called Permanent teeth or
secondary teeth. Most of them are replacements for the 20
Primary teeth or deciduous teeth, also called milk or baby
teeth.
Each tooth consist of three regions:
1. a crown with one or more cusps(point),
2. a neck
3. a root
The crown is the visible portion of a tooth. The neck is the
small region between crown and the root. The root is the
largest region of the tooth and anchors it in the jawbone.
 Within the center of the tooth is a pulp cavity,
which is filled with blood vessels, nerves, and
connective tissue, called pulp.
 The pulp cavity is surrounded by a living , cellular
,calcified tissue called dentin.
The dentin of the tooth crown is covered by an extremely hard,
acellular substance called enamel.
The surface of the dentin in the root is covered with cementum,
which helps anchor the tooth in jaw.

The teeth are rooted within alveoli (sockets) along the alveolar

processes of the mandible and maxillae. The alveolar processes
are covered by dense fibrous connective tissue and moist
stratified squamous epithelium, referred to as the gingiva (jin′ ji-
vă), or gums. The teeth are held in place
by PERIODONTAL (around the teeth) ligaments, which are
connective tissue fibers that extend from the alveolar walls and
are embedded into the cementum.
Periodontal disease - is inflammation and degeneration of the
periodontal
. ligaments, gingiva and alveolar bone. This disease is
most common cause of tooth loss in adults

Palate and Tonsils

The palate , or roof of the oral cavity, separates the oral cavity
from the nasal cavity and prevents food from passing into the
nasal cavity during chewing and swallowing.

The palate consists of two parts. The anterior part contains bone
and is called the hard palate, whereas the posterior portion
consists of skeletal muscle and connective tissue and is called
the soft palate.
 The Uvula (a grape) is a posterior extension of the soft
palate.

The tonsils are located in the lateral posterior walls of the

oral cavity, in the nasopharynx, and in the posterior
surface of the tongue.

Salivary Glands
There are three major pairs of salivary glands: 
1. The parotid
2. Submandibular
3. Sublingual glands
A considerable number of other salivary glands are
scattered throughout the oral cavity, including on the
tongue. Salivary glands produce saliva, which is a mixture
of serous (watery) and mucous fluids.

The salivary glands are compound alveolar glands. They

have branching ducts with clusters of alveoli, resembling
grapes, at the ends of the ducts.

The largest of the salivary glands, the parotid (beside the

ear) glands, are serous glands located just anterior to each
ear. Parotid ducts enter the oral cavity adjacent to the
second upper molars.
Mumps is an inflammation of the parotid gland caused by a
viral infection. The inflamed parotid glands become swollen, often
making the cheeks quite large. The virus causing mumps can also
infect other structures. Mumps in an adult male may involve the
testes and can result in sterility.

The submandibular (below the mandible) glands produce

more serous than mucous secretions. Each gland can be felt as a
soft lump along the inferior border of the mandible. The
submandibular ducts open into the oral cavity on each side of the
frenulum of the tongue (see figure 16.4).
The sublingual (below the tongue) glands, the
smallest of the three paired salivary glands, produce
primarily­mucous secretions. They lie immediately below
the mucous mem-brane in the floor of the oral cavity. Each
sublingual­gland has 10–12 small ducts opening onto the
floor of the oral cavity.
Saliva
Saliva is a versatile fluid. It helps keep the oral cavity moist and
contains enzymes that begin the process of digestion.
Saliva is secreted at the rate of approximately 1Liter per day.
The serous part of saliva, produced mainly by the parotid and
submandibular glands, contains a digestive enzyme called salivary
amylase which breaks down starch.

Saliva has protective functions. It prevents bacterial infections

in the mouth by washing the oral cavity with a mildly
antibacterial enzyme, called lysozyme.
saliva also neutralizes the pH in the mouth, which reduces the
harmful effects of bacterial acids on tooth enamel.
The serous part of saliva dissolves molecules, which must be in
solution to stimulate taste receptors. The mucous secretion of
the submandibular and sublingual glands contain a large
amount of mucin, a proteoglycan that gives a lubricating quality
to the secretion of the salivary glands
Mastication
 The food is taken into the mouth and chewed or masticated
by the teeth.
 Incisors and and Canines primarily cut and tear food.
 Mastication breaks large food into small particles.
 Because digestive enzymes act on molecules only at the
surface of the food particles,mastication increases the
efficiency of digestion.

PHARYNX(Throat)
-connects the mouth with esophagus .
3 parts of Pharynx;
1. Nasopharynx
2. Oropharynx
3. Laryngopharynx

Oropharynx and Laryngopharynx transmit food.

ESOPHAGUS

The esophagus is the part of the digestive tract that extends

between the pharynx and the stomach. It is about 25 cm long and
lies in the mediastinum, anterior to the vertebrae and posterior to
the trachea. It passes through the esophageal hiatus (opening) of
the diaphragm and ends at the stomach. The esophagus transports
food from the pharynx to the stomach.
Esophagus(Gullet) -is a muscular tube lined with moist
stratified squamous epithelium extend from pharynx to the
stomach.
• -It is about 25 cm long
• -The esophagus transports food from pharynx to stomach.
Upper and Lower Esophageal Sphincters-located at upper
and lower ends of the esophagus.
The Lower Esophageal sphincter also called as Cardiac
Sphincter.
Swallowing
Swallowing, or deglutition, can be divided into three phases:
1. The voluntary phase
2. The pharyngeal phase
3. The esophageal phase

During the voluntary phase, a bolus, or mass of food, is formed in

the mouth. The bolus is pushed by the tongue against the hard palate,
forcing the bolus toward the posterior part of the mouth and into the
oropharynx.
The pharyngeal phase of swallowing is a reflex that is initiated when
a bolus of food stimulates receptors in the oropharynx. This phase of
swallowing begins with the elevation of the soft palate, which closes
the passage between the nasopharynx and oropharynx. The pharynx
elevates to receive the bolus of food from the mouth. The
three pharyngeal constrictor muscles then contract in succession,
forcing the food through the pharynx. At the same time, the upper
esophageal sphincter relaxes, and food is pushed into the esophagus.
As food passes through the pharynx, the vestibular
and vocal folds close, and the epiglottis upon the
glottis, is tipped posteriorly, so that the opening into
the larynx is covered. These movements prevent food
from passing into the larynx.

The esophageal phase of swallowing is responsible for

moving food from the pharynx to the stomach.
Muscular con-tractions of the esophagus occur in peristaltic (per-
i-stal′ tik; peri, around+ stalsis, constriction)waves.
A wave of relaxation of the esophageal muscles precedes the
bolus of food down the esophagus, and a wave of strong
contraction of the circular muscles follows and propels the bolus
through the esophagus.

Gravity assists the movement of material, especially liquids,

through the esophagus. However, the peristaltic contractions that
move material through the esophagus are sufficiently forceful to
allow a person to swallow even while doing a headstand or
floating in the zero-gravity environment of space.
The peristaltic contractions cause relaxation of the lower
esophageal sphincter in the esophagus as the peristaltic waves
approach the stomach.
ANATOMY OF THE STOMACH

STOMACH- primarily houses the food

for mixing with hydrochloric
acid and other
secretions.
-an enlarged segment of
the digestive tract in the left
superior part of the
abdomen.
GASTROESOPHAGEAL OPENING – opening
from the esophagus into the
stomach.
CARDIAC REGION (near the HEART) – region of the stomach
around the gastroesophageal opening.

FUNDUS - most superior part of the stomach.

BODY – the largest part of the stomach.

-the body turns to right, forming a GREATER CURVATURE
and a LESSER CURVATURE.

PYLORIC OPENING – opening into the small

intestine
PYLORIC SPHINCTER – a relatively thick ring of smooth muscle
that
sorround the pyloric opening.
PYLORIC REGION – the region of the stomach near the
pyloric opening.
 3 MUSCULARIS LAYER OF THE
STOMACH
1. OUTER LONGITUDINAL LAYER
2. MIDDLE CIRCULAR LAYER
3. INNER OBLIQUE LAYER

*These muscular layers produce a churning action in the stomach

which is important in the digestive process.

RUGAE (wrinkles) – large folds wherein the submucosa and mucosa

of the stomach are thrown.

GASTRIC PITS - mucosal surface that forms numerous tubelike

which
are the openings for the GASTRIC GLANDS.
THE EPITHELIAL CELLS OF THE STOMACH CAN BE DIVIDED INTO 5
GROUPS :

1. SURFACE MUCOUS CELLS : on the inner surface of the stomach

and lining of the gastric pits, which produce mucus. (Located in the
gastic glands:)
2. MUCOUS NECK CELLS – produce mucus.

3. PARIETAL CELLS- produce hydrochloric acid and

intrinsic factor.

4.ENDOCRINE CELLS – produce regulatory

chemicals.
5.CHIEF CELLS produce PEPSINOGEN- a
precursor of the protein-digesting enzyme pepsin
SECRETIONS OF THE STOMACH

As food enters the stomach, the food is mixed with the stomach
secretions to become a semifluid mixture called CHYME.

*Stomach secretions from the gastric glands include:

1.HYDROCHLORIC ACID produces a pH of about 2.0. The acid

kills microorganisms and activates the enzyme ,pepsin.
2.PEPSIN is converted from its inactive form called pepsinogen. It
breaks covalent bond of proteins to form smaller peptide chains.
3.MUCUS forms a thick layer which lubricates the epithelial cells
of the stomach wall and protects them from damaging effect of
the acidic chime and pepsin.
4.INTRINSIC FACTOR binds with vitamin B12 and makes it more
readily absorbed in the small intestine.
HEARTBURN or gastritis – a painful or burning sensation in the
chest usually associated with an increase in gastric acid and or a
backflush of acidic chime into esophagus.

Causes of
heartburn:
 Overeating
 Eating fatty foods
 Lying down immediately after a meal
 Consuming too much alcohol or caffeine
 Smoking
 Wearing extremely tight clothing
 REGULATION OF STOMACH
SECRETION
• Approximately 2 L of gastric secretions are produced each day.
Both nervous and hormonal mechanisms regulate gastric
secretions. The neural mechanisms involve CNS reflexes
integrated within the medulla oblongata. Hormones produced by
the stomach and intestine regulate stomach secretion.
3 phases of Regulation Stomach
Secretion:

1. Cephalic phase- sensation of taste, smell of food stimulation of

tactile receptor during the process of chewing and swallowing
and pleasant thoughts of food stimulate centers within the
medulla oblangata that influence gastric secretion.
Gastrin- is a hormone that enters the circulation and is
carried back to the stomach, where it stimulate additional
secretory activity.

Gastric Phase- is the period during which greatest volume

in gastric secretion occurs. It activated by the presence of
food in the stomach. During the gastric phase, the food in
the stomach is mixed with gastric secretion.

Intestinal Phase- gastric secretion primarily inhibits gastric

secretion. Its is controlled by the entrance of acidic chyme
into the duodenum, which initiates Both neutral and
hormonal mechanism .
Secretin
Inhibits gastric secretion, is released from the duodenum in
response to low ph. Fatty acids and peptides in the
duodenum initiate the release of the hormone
cholecystokinin.
MOVEMENT IN THE STOMACH

2 types of stomach movement aid digestion and help move chyme

through the digestive tract:

Mixing waves- relatively weak contraction result in mixing waves,

which thoroughly mix ingested food with stomach secretions to the
chyme. The more fluid part of the chyme is pushed toward the
pyloric sphincter, whereas the more solid center moves back
toward the body of the stomach.
Peristaltic wave
Stronger contraction results peristaltic wave, which force the chyme
toward and through the pyloric sphincter. The pyloric sphincter usually
remains closed because of mild tonic contraction, Each peristaltic
contraction is sufficiently strong to cause partial relaxation of the
pyloric sphincter and to pump a few millilitres of chyme through the
pyloric opening into the duodenum
 SMALL
INTESTINE

Anatomy of the Small Intestine

The small intestine is about 6 meters
(m) long and it consist of 3 parts:

1. The Duodenum - is about 25 cm long

(the term Duodenum means 12)
2. The Jejunum - is about 2.5 m long
and makes up two-filths of the total
length of the small intestine.
3. The Ileum - is about 3.5 m long and
makes up three-filths of the small
intestine.
The duodenum nearly completes a 180 degree arc as it curves within
the abdominal cavity.
The common bile duct from the liver and and the pancreatic duct
from the pancreas joins and empty into the duodenum.
The small intestine is the major site of digestion and absorption of
food, which are accomplished due to the presence of large surface
area.

The small intestine has 3 modifications that increase the surface

area about 600 fold
1. Circular fold - that runs perpendicular to the long axis of
digestive system
2. Villi - is a tiny, fingerlike projections of the mucosa that forms
numerous
 Lactealvilli
- (resembling milk)within the loos connective
3. Microvilli
tissue core- ofmost
each ofvillus
the cells composing
are a the the
blood capillary surfaceand
network of the
a villi
have numerous
lymphatic cytoplasmic extensions, called microvilli
capillary
The mucosa of the small intestine is a simple columnar epithelium
with four major cell type:
1. Absorptive cell - which have microvilli, produce digestive
enzymes, and absorb digested cell.
2. Goblet cell - which produce a productive mucos
3. Granular cell - which may help protect the intestinal epithelium
from bacteria.
4. Endocrine cell - which produce regulatory hormones.
 • Intestinal gland or (crypts of Lieberkuhn)- at the base of the
villi, epithelial cells are located within tubular gland of the
mucosa.
 •Duodenal gland - the submucosa of the duodenum contains
mucos gland, which opens into the base of the epithelial gland.
 •Peyer patches - (are numerous in ileum) lymphatic nodeuls are
common along the entire length of the digestive track, and
cluster lymphatic nodules.
 •Ileoceral junction - the site where the ileum connects to the
large intestine.
 Ileocecal sphincter and ileocecal valve - is the ring of smooth
muscle, which allow the intestinal contents to move from the
elium to the large intistine, but not in the opposite direction.
 Secretion of Small Intestine
•Peptidases - (digest protiens) They break the peptide
bonds in protiens to form amino acids.
•Disaccharides - digest small sugars, specifically disaccharide.
The enzyms break down disaccharide, such as maltose, into
monosaccharide, such as glucose.
Movement of Small Intestine
•Perestaltic contractions - proceed along the length along
the intestine for variable distance and cause the chyme to
move along the small intestine.
•Segmental contraction - are propagated for only short
distance to mix
Absorption intestinal
in the Smallcontents.
Intestine
The major function of small intistine is to absorption of
nutrients. Most absorption occur in the duodenum and
jejunum, although some absorption also occur in the ileum.
 LIVER
AND
PANCRE
produce AS
Two accessory glands,
secretions that
empty into the duodenum.
 ANATOMY OF THE
LIVER
Liver – processes nutrients and detoxifies harmful substances
from the blood.
- largest internal organ of the body and weighs about
1.36 kg (3pounds). And it is located in the right upper quadrant
of the abdomen, tucked against the inferior surface of the
diaphgram.

2 Major
Bile Lobes of
– important Liver fluid produced by the liver.
digestive
Right Lobe & Left Lobe

The two lobes are separated by a connective tissue septum

called, FALCIFORM LIGAMENT.
Two smaller liver lobes
- Caudate lobe (having a tail)
- Quadrate lobe ( square)
 Liver receives blood from two sources
 Hepatic artery which delivers oxygenated blood to the
liver.
 Hepatic portal Vein – carries nutrient-rich blood from the
digestive tract to the liver.
 Blood exits the liver through HEPATIC VEINS

3 structures of Portal Triads

1. The hepatic artery
2. The hepatic portal vein
3. The hepatic duct

Hepatic Cords – formed by platelike groups of liver cells, called

HEPATOCYTES which is located between the center and the
margins of each lobule.
Hepatic sinusoids (resembling cavities) – blood channels that
separate the hepatic cords from one another.
Sinusoid Epithelium- contains phagocytic cells that help remove
foreign particles from the blood.

Central Vein – the mixed blood flows toward the center of each
lobule.
Bile Canaliculus (little canals)- a cleftlike lumen between the cells
of each hepatic cord.

 The hepatic ducts converge and empty into the right and left
hepatic ducts to transport bile out of the liver.
 The right and left hepatic ducts unite to form a single common
hepatic duct.
Gallbladder – a small sac on the inferior surface of the liver that
stores concentrated bile.

 The common hepatic duct is joined by the cystic duct from the
gallbadder to form the common bile duct.
 The common bile duct joins the pancreatic duct , together they
open into the duodenum at the duodenal papilla.

 Sphincter – regulates the opening into the

duodenum.
 FUNCTIONS OF THE
LIVER
The liver performs important digestive and
excretory functions, stores and processes
nutrients, detoxifies harmful chemicals, and
synthesizes new molecules.
 The liver produces and secretes about 600–1000 mL of bile
each day.
 Bile - contains no digestive enzymes, but it plays an
important role in digestion by diluting and neutralizing
stomach acid and by dramatically increasing the
efficiency of fat digestion and absorption.
 Bile salts - emulsify fats, breaking the fat globules into
smaller droplets, much like the action of detergents in
 dishwater.
Bile also contains excretory products, such as cholesterol, fats, and
bile pigments, including bilirubin a bile pigment that results from
the breakdown of hemoglobin.
 Gallstones - may form if the amount of cholesterol secreted by the
liver becomes excessive and is not able to be dissolved by the bile
salts.
 Anatomy of the
Pancreas
 Pancreas - is located  Pancreatic islets
retroperitoneal, posterior to (islets of Langerhans).
the stomach in the inferior The islet cells produce
part of the left upper the hormones insulin and
quadrant. glucagon, which enter
 It has a head near the the blood. These
midline of the body and a tail hormones are very
that extends to the left, important in controlling
where it touches the spleen. blood levels of nutrients,
Acini ( grapes) produce digestive enzymes.
such as glucose
Clustersand
of acini
are connected by small ducts, which join
amino
to form
acidslarger
. ducts,
and the larger ducts join to form the PANCREATIC DUCT. The
pancreatic duct joins the common bile duct and empties into
the duodenum.
 Functions Of The
Pancreas
Major proteolytic (protein-digesting) enzymes are:
1. Trypsin
2. Chymotrypsin
3. Carboxypeptidase
These enzymes continue the protein digestion that started in
the stomach, and pancreatic amylase continues the
polysaccharide digestion that began in the oral cavity. The
pancreatic enzymes also include lipase, a lipid-digesting
enzyme, and nucleases, which are enzymes that degrade DNA
and RNA to their component nucleotides
ANATOMY OF THE LARGE INTESTINE

The Large Intestine consists of

1. Cecum
2. Colon
3. Rectum CECUM
4. Anal canal - is the proximal end of the
large intestine where it joints with the
small intestine at the ileocecal junction.
-Located in the right lower
quadrant of the abdomen near the iliac
fossa.
-Is a sac that extends
inferiorly about 6 cm past the ileocecal
junction.
Appendix- is a tube about 9 cm long that
attached to the cecum.
Appendicitis- is an inflammation of the
 Secretions from the appendix cannot pass the obstruction;
therefore, they accumulate, causing enlargement and pain.
Bacteria around the appendix can cause infection.
 Symptons include sudden abdomenal pain, particularly in the
right lower quadrant at the specific point called McBurney point.
McBurney point- is a midway between the anbilicus and the right
superior iliac spine of the coxal bone.

 Appendicitis also can cause a slight fever, loss of appetite,

constipation or diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting.

 If the appendix burst, the infection can spread throughout the

peritoneal cavity, causing peritonitis with life-threatening results.
Each year, 500,000 people in the united states suffer from
appendicitis. The usaul treatment is an appendectomy, surgical
removal of the appendix.
COLON
- is about 1.5-1.8 m long consists of four parts.

4 PARTS OF COLON

1. ASCENDING COLON
2. TRANSVERSE COLON
3. DESCENDING COLON
4. SIGMOID COLON

ASCENDING COLON-extends superiorly from the cecum to the

right colic flexure, near the liver, where it turns left.
TRANSVERSE COLON- extends from right colic flexure to the
left colic flexure near the spleen, where the colon turns inferiorly.
DESCENDING COLON-extends from the left colic flexure to
the pelvis, where becomes the sigmoid colon
SIGMOID COLON- S-shaped tube that extends medially and
the inferiorly into the pelvic cavity and ends at the rectum.

 The mucosal lining of the colon contains numerous straight,

tubular glands called CRYPST, which contain many mucus
layer of the colon does not completely envelope the
intestinal wall but forms three bands called TENIAE COLI.

RECTUM
-is a straight, muscular tube that begins at the
termination of the sigmoid colon and ends at the anal canal.
Muscular tunic- is composed of smooth muscle and is relatively
thick in the rectum compared to the rest of the digestive tract.
ANAL CANAL
 The last 2-3 cm of the digestive tract.
 It begins at the inferior end of the rectum and ends at the anus
(external digestive tract opening).
 smooth layer of the anal canal is even thicker than that of the
rectum and forms the INTERNAL ANAL SPHINCTER at its
superior ends.
 EXTERNAL SPHINCTER at the inferior end of the anal canal is
formed by skeletal muscle.
 HEMORRHOIDS- are enlarge or inflamed rectal, or
hemorrhoidal , veins that supply the anal canal.
-may cause pain, itching, and/or bleeding around the anus.
TREATMENT INCLUDE:
 increasing bulk (indigestive fiber) in
the diet
 taking sitz baths
 using hydrocortisone
FUNCTIONS suppositories.
OF THE LARGE INTESTINE
• Normally, 18-24 hours are required for material to pass
throught the large intestine, in contrast to the 3-5 hours
required for chyme to move through the small intestine.
• CHYME- is converted to feces in the colon.
• FECES INFORMATION- is due to the absobtion of water and
salts, the secretion of mucus, and extensive action of
microorganisms.
• The colon store the feces until they are eliminated by the
process of DEFECATION.
• Numerous microorganisms inhabit the colon. They
reproduce rapidly and ultimately constitute about 30% of
MASS MOVEMENTS

• Every 8-12 hours, large parts of the colon undergo several

strong contractions.
• propel the colon content a considerable distance towards
the anus.
• Mass movement contraction extends 20 or more cm of
large intestine.
• DEFECATION REFLEX - occurs when feces distend the
rectal wall.
-consists of local and
parasympathetic reflexes.
• LOCAL REFLEX - cause weak contractions of the distal
• colon
Action potentials-
and rectum. produced in response to the distention of
the rectal wall travel along
• PARASYMPATHETIC REFLEX sensory nerve
- cause fibers
strong to the
contractions,
defecation
and reflex responsible
are normally center in thefor
sacral
mostregion
of the of the spinal cord.
defecation
reflex.
External anal Sphincter
 - composed of skeletal muscle and is under
conscious cerebral control, prevents feces from moving
out of the rectum and through the anal opening.
 -Reflex is generally reinitiated after a period
that may be as long as several hours.
 -Defecation can be initiated by voluntary
actions that stimulate a defecation reflex.

 These action include a large inspiration of air, followed

by closure of the larynx and forceful contraction of the
abdominal muscles. As a consequence, the pressure in
the abdominal cavity increases and forces feces into the
rectum. Stretching of the rectum initiates a defecation
reflex. The increased abdominal pressure also helps
push feces through the rectum.
DIGESTION,
ABSORPTION AND
TRANSPORT
TWO TYPES OF DIGESTION

1. Mechanical digestion - break large food particles into

smaller ones.

2. Chemical digestion - uses enzymes to breaj covalent bonds

in organic molecules.

Note : absorption begins in the stomach, where some small, lipid

soluble molecules, such as alcohol, can diffuse through the
stomach epithelium into the blood. transport requires carrier
molecules and includes facilitated diffusion, cotransport, and
active transport.
Carbohydrates

 consists primarily of starches, cellulose, sucrose, and small amounts

of fructose and lactose.
 Polysaccharide - large carbohydrate such as starches, cellulose and
glycogen, that consists of many sugars linked by chemical bond.
 Salivary amylase- begins digestion of carbohydrates in the mouth.
 Pancreatic amylase - enters the duodenum and continues the
digestion of carbohydrates, so that absorption can begin.
 Disaccharides- break down of polysaccharides into smaller into
salivary and pancreatic amylase.
 Monosaccharides-single sugar like glucose, galactose and fructose
are absorb by intestinal epithelial cells.
 Glucose-are the conversion of different types of monosaccharides
from liver cells.
Lipids
• are insoluble or only slightly soluble in water.
this includes triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, and fat
soluble vitamins..
• Triglycerides or fats are most common type of lipid.
• Saturated fats-only single bonds between carbon.
-solid at room temperature, gound in meat eggs, nuts, and
certain oils.
•Monounsaturated
Unsaturated fatsfats- -onlyhave
havedouble
doublebond
bonds between
between carbons.
carbons in
-liquid at room
their fatty temperature, found in fish and most plant based
acids.
oils.
Lipase -secreted by the pancreas, digest lipid molecules.

Emulsification- key step in lipd digestion, which bile salts

transform large lipid droplets into smaller lipid droplets.

Micelles -form when bile salts aggregate around the small

 Chylomicrons-the packaged lipid protein complexes or
liproproteins.
 Chyle-lymph containing large amounts of absorbed lipid.
 Low density liproproteins and High density liproproteins
transport cholesterol and fat in the blood.
 Proteins- chains of amino acids.
-found mostly in plants and animals products
we eat.
 Pepsin- is a protein digesting enzyme secreted by the
stomach.
- pepsin breaks down large proteins into smaller
individual polypeptides.
Note: In the small intestine, the enzymes trypsin,
chymotrypsin and carboxypeptidase vontinue protein
digestion.
EFFECTS OF AGING

 The connective tissue layers of the digestive tract, the

submucosa and serosa tend to thin.
 The blood supply to the digestive tract decreases.
 Also the number of smooth muscle cells in the
muscularis, resulting in decreased motility in the digestive
tract.

 In addition, goblet cells within the mucosa secrete less

mucus. Glands along the digestive tract, such as tye
gastric glands, the liver, and the pancreas, also tend to
secrete less with age.

 The mucosa of elderly people tends to heal more slowly

follwing injury.
 The liver's ability to detoxify certain chemicals tends to
decline;
 Elderly people are more likely to develop ulcerations and
cancers of the digestive tract.

 Gastroesophageal reflux disorder (GERD) - increases

with advancing age. It is probably the main reason that
elderly people take antacids and inhibitors of hydrochloric
acid secretion.

 The enamel on the surface of elderly people's teeth becomes

thinner with age and may expose the underlying dentin.

In addition, the gingiva covering the tooth root recedes,

exposing additional dentin. Exposed dentin may become
painful and change the person's eating habits.

 The muscle of mastication tend to become weaker; as a

result, older people tend to chew their food less before
swallowing.