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The Body and Its Constituents

The human body is composed of cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. Cells are the basic functional units of the body and consist of a plasma membrane and various internal structures called organelles that carry out specialized functions. These include the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, and Golgi apparatus. Cells come together to form tissues like muscle and bone, and tissues group together to form organs such as the heart, brain, and lungs.

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35 views

The Body and Its Constituents

The human body is composed of cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. Cells are the basic functional units of the body and consist of a plasma membrane and various internal structures called organelles that carry out specialized functions. These include the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, and Golgi apparatus. Cells come together to form tissues like muscle and bone, and tissues group together to form organs such as the heart, brain, and lungs.

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santosh s u
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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The body and its constituents


Cells are the smallest functional units of the body. They are
grouped together to form tissues, each of which has a
specialised function e.g. blood, muscle, bone. Different
tissue are grouped together to form organs, e.g. stomach,
brain, heart
Structure and function
The human body develops from a single cell called the zygote,
which results from the fusion of the ovum (female egg Cell) and
the spermatozoon (male sex cell).

cell devision follows and, as the fetus grows, cells with different
structural and functional specialisations develop, all with the
same genetic make-up as the zygote. Individual cells are too
small to be seen with the naked eye. However, they can be seen
when thin slices of tissue are stained in the laboratory and
magnified by a microscope. 
A cell consists of a plasma membrane inside which are a
number of organelles suspended in a watery fluid
called cytoplasm . Organelles, literally‘small organs',
have individual and highly specialised functions, and
are often enclosed in their own membrane within the
cytoplasm. They include: the nucleus, mitochondria,
ribosomes, endoplas mic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes and the cytoskeleton. 
The simple cell
Plasma membrane 
 
The plasma membrane  consists of two layers (fatty
substances) with protein and sugar molecules
embedded in them. In addition to phospholipids, the
lipid cholesterol is also present in the plasma
membrane. Those proteins that extend all the way
through the membrane may provide channels that
allow the passage of, for example, electrolytes and non
lipid-soluble substances.
The phospholipid molecules have a head, which is
electrically charged and hydrophilic (meaning 'water
loving'), and a tail which has no charge and is
hydropho bic (meaning'water hating). The
phospholipid bilayer is arranged like a sandwich with
the hydrophilic heads aligned on the outer surfaces of
the membrane and the hydrophobic tails forming a
central water repelling layer. These differences
influence the transfer of substances across the
membrane. 
The membrane proteins perform several functions: 
 branched carbohydrate molecules attached to the
outside of some membrane protein molecules give
the cell its immunological identity 
they can act as specific receptors (recognition sites)
for hormones and other chemical messengers some
are enzymes some are involved in transport across the
membrane. 
Organelles
Nucleus Every cell in the body has a nucleus, with the
exception of mature erythrocytes (red blood cells).
Skeletal muscle and some other cells contain several
nuclei. The nucleus is the largest organelle and is
contained within the nuclear envelope, a membrane
similar to the plasma membrane but with tiny pores
through which some substances can pass between it and
the cytoplasm, i.e. the cell contents excluding the
nucleus. 
The nucleus contains the body's genetic material,
which directs all the metabolic activities of the cell.
This consists of 46 chromosomes, Within the nucleus
is a roughly spherical structure called the nucleolus,
which is involved in manufacture (synthesis) and
assembly of the components of ribosomes.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are membranous, sausage-shaped struc
tures in the cytoplasm, sometimes described as the
“power house of the cell . They are involved in
aerobic respiration, the processes by which chemical
energy is made available in the cell. This is in the form
of ATP, which releases energy when the cell breaks it
down . The most active cell types have the greatest
number of mitochondria, e.g. liver, muscle and
spermatozoa. 
Ribosomes
These are tiny granules composed of RNA and protein. They
synthesise proteins from amino acids. When present in free units
or in small clusters in the cytoplasm, the  ribosomes make proteins
for use within the cell. These include the enzymes required for
metabolism. Metabolic pathways consist of a series of steps, each
driven by a specific enzyme. Ribosomes are also found on the outer
surface of the nuclear envelope and rough endoplasmic reticulum
where they manufac ture proteins for export from the cell. 
Endoplasmic reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum is an extensive series of intercon
necting membranous canals in the cytoplasm (Fig.
3.3). There are two types:
 smooth
 rough
Smooth ER synthesises lipids and steroid hormones,
and is also associated with the detoxification of some
drugs. Some of the lipids are used to replace and
repair the plasma membrane and membranes of
organelles. Rough ER is studded with ribosomes.
Lysosomes Lysosomes are one type of secretory vesicle
with membranous walls, which are formed by the Golgi
apparatus. They contain a variety of enzymes involved in
breaking down fragments of organelles and large
molecules

function Lysosomes in white blood cells contain


enzymes that digest foreign material such as microbes. 
Golgi apparatus
The Golgi apparatus consists of stacks of closely folded
flattened membranous sacs .

function
The proteins move from the endoplasmic reticulum to
the Golgi apparatus where they are 'packaged' into
membrane-bound vesicles called secretory granules.
The vesicles are stored and, when needed
Cytoskeleton
This consists of an extensive network of tiny protein fibres.

Microfilaments.
Microtubules.
chromosome

Microfilaments :- They are small fibres which help in contraction and


provide structural support.
Microtubules:-These are larger contractile protein fibres. that are
involved in movement organelles, chromosomes during cell division.
Centrosome:- This directs organisation of microtubules within the
cell. And  plays an important role during cell division.
Cell extensions.

 microvilli – tiny projections that contain microfilaments.


They cover the surface of certain types of cell, e.g.
absorptive cells that line the small intestine to maximise
absorption of nutrients from the small intestine. 
 cilia - microscopic hair-like projections lie along the free
borders of some cells .moving substances along the surface,
e.g. mucus upwards in the respiratory tract. 
 flagella - single, long whip-like projections, 
e .g. 'tails' of spermatozoa.

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