SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

(SMAW)
•Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW),
•Also known as Manual Metal Arc (MMA) welding
• Informally as stick welding

is a manual arc welding process that uses a

consumable electrode coated in flux to lay the weld.

•An electric current, in the form of either

alternating current or direct current from a
welding power supply, is used to form an electric arc
between the electrode and the metals to be joined.
• As the weld is laid, the flux coating of
the electrode disintegrates, giving off
vapors that serve as a shielding gas
and providing a layer of slag, both of
which protect the weld area from
atmospheric contamination.

• Because of the versatility of the

process and the simplicity of its
equipment and operation, shielded
metal arc welding is one of the world's
most popular welding processes.
• It dominates other welding processes in the
maintenance and repair industry, used
extensively in the construction of steel
structures and in industrial fabrication.

• The process is used primarily to weld iron

and steels (including stainless steel) but
aluminum, nickel and copper alloys can also
be welded with this method.

• Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) , a

modification to SMAW is growing in
popularity
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
• Uses an open electric arc, so
risk of burns – to be prevented
by protective clothing in the
form of heavy leather gloves
and long sleeve jackets.

•The brightness of the weld area

can lead arc eye, in which
ultraviolet light causes the
inflammation of the cornea and
can burn the retinas of the eyes.
•Welding helmets with dark face
plates to be worn to prevent this
exposure
• New helmet models have been produced that
feature a face plate that self-darkens upon
exposure to high amounts of UV light

• To protect bystanders, especially in

industrial environments, transparent welding
curtains often surround the welding area.

• These are made of a polyvinyl chloride

plastic film, shield nearby workers from
exposure to the UV light from the electric arc,
but should not be used to replace the filter
glass used in helmets.
 ARC EYE
Arc eye, also known as arc flash or welder's flash or
corneal flash burns, is a painful condition sometimes
experienced by welders who have failed to use adequate
eye protection.
It can also occur due to light from sunbeds, light
reflected from snow (known as snow blindness), water
or sand. The intense ultraviolet light emitted by the arc
causes a superficial and painful keratitis.

Symptoms tend to occur a number of hours

after exposure and typically resolve
spontaneously within 36 hours.
It has been described as having sand poured
into the eyes.
 Signs


Intense lacrimation
Blepharospasm
Photophobia
Fluorescein dye staining will reveal corneal ulcers
under blue light

Management
• Instill topical anaesthesia
• Inspect the cornea for any foreign body
• Patch the worse of the two eyes and prescribe analgesia
• Topical antibiotics in the form of eye drops or eye
ointment or both should be prescribed for prophylaxis
against infection
EQUIPMENT
Various welding electrodes and an electrode holder
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)
CONTROL PANEL
 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
• Is a common arc welding process.
• A continuously fed consumable solid or tubular
(metal cored) electrode used.
• The molten weld and the arc zone are protected
from atmospheric contamination by being
“submerged” under a blanket of granular fusible
flux.
• When molten, the flux becomes conductive, and
provides a current path between the electrode
and the work
• Normally operated in the automatic or
mechanized mode.
• Semi-automatic (hand-held) SAW guns with
pressurized or gravity flux feed delivery are
available.
• The process is normally limited to the 1F, 1G, or
the 2F positions (although 2G position welds
have been done with a special arrangement to
support the flux). Deposition rates approaching
45 kg/h have been reported — this compares to
~5 kg/h (max) for shielded metal arc welding.
• Currents ranging from 200 to 1500 A are
commonly used; currents of up to 5000 A have
been used (multiple arcs).
• Single or multiple (2 to 5) electrode wire
variations of the process exist
• SAW strip-cladding utilizes a flat strip
electrode (e.g. 60 mm wide x 0.5 mm
thick).
• DC or AC power can be utilized, and
combinations of DC and AC are common
on multiple electrode systems.
• Constant Voltage welding power supplies
are most commonly used, however
Constant Current systems in combination
with a voltage sensing wire-feeder are
available.
 Material applications
• Carbon steels (structural and vessel
construction);
• Low alloy steels;
• Stainless Steels;
• Nickel-based alloys;
• Surfacing applications (wearfacing, build-
up, and corrosion resistant overlay of
steels).
 Advantages of SAW

• High deposition rates (over45 kg/h) have been

reported;
• High operating factors in mechanized
applications;
• Deep weld penetration;
• Sound welds are readily made (with good
process design and control);
• High speed welding of thin sheet steels at over
2.5 m/min is possible;
• Minimal welding fume or arc light is emitted.
 Limitations of SAW

• Limited to ferrous (steel or stainless steels) and

some nickel based alloys;
• Normally limited to the 1F, 1G, and 2F positions;
• Normally limited to long straight seams or
rotated pipes or vessels;
• Requires relatively troublesome flux handling
systems;
• Flux and slag residue can present a health &
safety issue;
• Requires inter-pass and post weld slag removal.
 Key SAW process variables
• Wire Feed Speed (main factor in welding current control);
• Arc Voltage;
• Travel Speed;
• Electrical Stick-Out (ESO) or Contact Tip to Work (CTTW);
• Polarity and Current Type (AC or DC).

Other factors
• Flux depth/width;
• Flux and electrode classification and type;
• Electrode wire diameter;
• Multiple electrode configurations.
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)
GTAW
 GTAW
• Fusion Welding Process
• Arc Between Non-Consumable Tungsten Rod
And Work
• Arc & Weld Pool Shielded By Argon/Gas
• Filler Wire Separately Added To Weld Pool
• Welding Torch & Tungsten Rod Cooled by
Flow OF Argon / Cooling Water
GTAW Equipment & Accessories
• Power Source – Inverter, Thyrister, Rectifier,
Generator
• High Frequency Unit
• Water Cooling System
• Welding Torch- (Ceramic Cup, Tungsten Rod, Collet,
Gas-lens)
• Pedal Switch
• Argon Gas Cylinder
• Pressure Gauge, Regulator, Flow Meter
• Earthing Cable With Clamp
 Equipment & Accessories
Pressure Regulator
Flow Meter

Tungsten Rod
Argon Gas In
Cooling Water In Solenoid
Valve Argon Cylinder

Gas Lens HF Unit &

Welding Cable & Cooling Water Cooling
Ceramic Cup Water In Tube System
Cooling Water Out
Argon Shielding
Arc
High Frequency
+ Connection
Work

Pedal Switch Power Source

– +
 Equipment

GTAW torch with various GTAW torch, disassembled

electrodes, cups, collets and gas
diffusers
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW),
commonly known as Tungsten Inert Gas
(TIG) welding
• Is an arc welding process that uses a
nonconsumable tungsten electrode to produce
the weld.
• The weld area is protected from atmospheric
contamination by a shielding gas (usually an
inert gas such as argon), and a filler metal is
normally used, though some welds, known as
autogenous welds, do not require it.
• A constant current welding power supply
produces energy which is conducted across the
arc through a column of highly ionized gas and
metal vapors known as a plasma.
• Most commonly used to weld thin sections
of stainless steel and light metals such as
aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys.
• The process grants the operator greater
control over the weld than competing
procedures such as
shielded metal arc welding and
gas metal arc welding, allowing for stronger,
higher quality welds.
• GTAW is comparatively more complex and
difficult to master, and furthermore, it is
significantly slower than most other welding
techniques.
• A related process, plasma arc welding, uses
a slightly different welding torch to create a
more focused welding arc and as a result is
often automated.
GTAW system setup
 Applications
• Aerospace industry is one of the primary users of gas
tungsten arc welding, the process is used in a number of other
areas.
• Many industries use GTAW for welding thin workpieces,
especially nonferrous metals.
• It is used extensively in the manufacture of space vehicles, and
is also frequently employed to weld small-diameter, thin-wall
tubing.
• Is often used to make root or first pass welds for piping of
various sizes.
• In maintenance and repair work, the process is commonly used
to repair tools and dies, especially components made of
aluminum and magnesium.
• Because the welds it produces are highly resistant to corrosion
and cracking over long time periods, GTAW is the welding
procedure of choice for critical welding operations like sealing
spent nuclear fuel canisters before burial.
 GTAW ranks the highest in terms of the
Quality quality of weld produced.
Operation must be with free from oil,
moisture, dirt and other impurities, as
these cause weld porosity and
consequently a decrease in weld
strength and quality.
To remove oil & grease, alcohol or
similar commercial solvents used, while
a stainless steel wire brush or chemical
process remove oxides from the
surfaces of metals like aluminum.
Rust on steels removed by first
grit blasting the surface and then using a
wire brush to remove imbedded grit.
These steps important when DCEN
used, because this provides no cleaning
during the welding process, unlike
DCEPor AC.
To maintain a clean weld pool during welding, the shielding gas flow should be
sufficient and consistent so that the gas covers the weld and blocks impurities in
the atmosphere. GTA welding in windy or drafty environments increases the
amount of shielding gas necessary to protect the weld, increasing the cost and
making the process unpopular outdoors.
• Because of GTAW's relative difficulty and the
importance of proper technique, skilled
operators are employed for important
applications.
• Low heat input, caused by low welding
current or high welding speed, can limit
penetration and cause the weld bead to lift
away from the surface being welded.
• If there is too much heat input, the weld
bead grows in width while the likelihood of
excessive penetration and spatter increase.
• If the welder holds the welding torch too far
from the workpiece, shielding gas is wasted
and the appearance of the weld worsens.
• If the amount of current used exceeds the
capability of the electrode, tungsten
inclusions in the weld may result. Known as
tungsten spitting, it can be identified with
radiography and prevented by changing the
type of electrode or increasing the electrode
diameter.
• If the electrode is not well protected by the
gas shield or the operator accidentally allows
it to contact the molten metal, it can become
dirty or contaminated. This often causes the
welding arc to become unstable, requiring
that electrode be ground with a diamond
abrasive to remove the impurity.
• GTAW welding torches designed for either automatic
or manual operation and are equipped with cooling
systems using air or water. The automatic and
manual torches are similar in construction, but the
manual torch has a handle while the automatic torch
normally comes with a mounting rack.
• The angle between the centerline of the handle and
the centerline of the tungsten electrode, known as
the head angle, can be varied on some manual
torches according to the preference of the operator.
• Air cooling systems are most often used for low-
current operations (up to about 200 A), while water
cooling is required for high-current welding (up to
about 600 A).
• The torches are connected with cables to the power
supply and with hoses to the shielding gas source
and where used, the water supply.
• The internal metal parts of a torch
are made of hard alloys of copper
or brass in order to transmit
current and heat effectively.
• The tungsten electrode must be
held firmly in the center of the
torch with an appropriately sized
collet, and ports around the
electrode provide a constant flow
of shielding gas.
• The body of the torch is made of
heat-resistant, insulating plastics
covering the metal components,
providing insulation from heat and
electricity to protect the welder.
 GTAW TORCH

Cap with collet For Torch Handle Cooling Water Outlet

Holding Tungsten
Argon Gas Inlet

Cooling Water Inlet Tube with cable

Ceramic Cup

Tungsten Rod Argon Shielding Gas

Base Metal

Earthing Cable Arc

• The size of the welding torch nozzle depends
on the size of the desired welding arc, and
the inside diameter of the nozzle is normally
at least three times the diameter of the
electrode.
• The nozzle must be heat resistant and thus is
normally made of alumina or a ceramic
material, but fused quartz, a glass-like
substance, offers greater visibility.
• Devices can be inserted into the nozzle for
special applications, such as gas lenses or
valves to control shielding gas flow and
switches to control welding current.
Power supply • GTAW uses a constant
current power source,
meaning that the current (and
thus the heat) remains
relatively constant, even if
the arc distance and voltage
change.
• This is important because
most applications of GTAW
are manual or semiautomatic,
requiring that an operator
hold the torch.
• Maintaining a suitably steady
arc distance is difficult if a
constant voltage power
source is used instead, since
it can cause dramatic heat
variations and make welding
more difficult.
• The preferred polarity of the GTAW system depends largely on
the type of metal being welded.

• DCEN is often employed when welding steels, nickel, titanium,

and other metals. It can also be used in automatic GTA welding
of aluminum or magnesium when helium is used as a shielding
gas. The negatively charged electrode generates heat by
emitting electrons which travel across the arc, causing thermal
ionization of the shielding gas and increasing the temperature
of the base material. The ionized shielding gas flows toward the
electrode, not the base material, and this can allow oxides to
build on the surface of the weld.

• DCEP is less common, and is used primarily for shallow welds

since less heat is generated in the base material. Instead of
flowing from the electrode to the base material, as in DCEN,
electrons go the other direction, causing the electrode to reach
very high temperatures. To help it maintain its shape and
prevent softening, a larger electrode is often used. As the
electrons flow toward the electrode, ionized shielding gas flows
back toward the base material, cleaning the weld by removing
oxides and other impurities and thereby improving its quality
and appearance.
• AC commonly used when welding aluminum and
magnesium manually or semi-automatically, combines
the two direct currents by making the electrode and
base material alternate between positive and negative
charge. This causes the electron flow to switch
directions constantly, preventing the tungsten electrode
from overheating while maintaining the heat in the base
material. This makes the ionized shielding gas
constantly switch its direction of flow, causing
impurities to be removed during a portion of the cycle.
• Some power supplies enable operators to use an unbalanced
alternating current wave by modifying the exact percentage of time
that the current spends in each state of polarity, giving them more
control over the amount of heat and cleaning action supplied by
the power source.
• In addition, operators must be wary of rectification, in
which the arc fails to reignite as it passes from straight
polarity (negative electrode) to reverse polarity (positive
electrode).
• To remedy the problem, a square wave power supply
can be used, as can high frequency voltage to
encourage ignition.
 Tungsten Rod
Tungsten Rod
• Non Consumable Electrode.

• Maintains Stable Arc

• Tip to be Ground to a cone Shape of 60º to 30º

angle

• Thoriated Tungsten for General Application,

Zerconiated Tungsten for Aluminium Welding
Ground to
50º ankle
• Sizes :- 2, 2.4 & 3 mm Ø
•The electrode used in GTAW is
made of tungsten or a tungsten ISO
ISO Color AWS Class
AWS
Alloy [18]
Class Color
alloy, because tungsten has the
highest melting temperature among
metals, at 3422 °C. WP Green EWP Green None
• The electrode is not consumed ~2% CeO2
WC20 Gray EWCe-2 Orange
during welding, though some erosion
WL10 Black EWLa-1 Black ~1% LaO2
(called burn-off) can occur.
•Electrodes can have either a clean WL15 Gold EWLa-1.5 Gold ~1.5% LaO2

finish or a ground finish—clean finish WL20 Sky-blue EWLa-2 Blue ~2% LaO2
electrodes have been chemically WT10 Yellow EWTh-1 Yellow ~1% ThO2
cleaned, while ground finish
WT20 Red EWTh-2 Red ~2% ThO2
electrodes have been ground to a
uniform size and have a polished WT30 Violet     ~3% ThO2

surface, making them optimal for WT40 Orange     ~4% ThO2

heat conduction. WY20 Blue     ~2% Y2O3

•The diameter of the electrode can
WZ3 Brown EWZr-1 Brown ~0.3% ZrO2
vary between 0.5 mm and 6.4 mm,
and their length can range from 75 WZ8 White     ~0.8% ZrO2

to 610 mm .
• A number of tungsten alloys have been standardized by the
International Organization for Standardization and the
American Welding Society in ISO 6848 and AWS A5.12, respectively, for use
in GTAW electrodes- refer table

• Pure tungsten electrodes (classified as WP or EWP) are general purpose

and low cost electrodes. Cerium oxide (or ceria) as an alloying element
improves arc stability and ease of starting while decreasing burn-off. Using
an alloy of lanthanum oxide (or lanthana) has a similar effect. Thorium oxide
(or thoria) alloy electrodes were designed for DC applications and can
withstand somewhat higher temperatures while providing many of the
benefits of other alloys.
• However, it is somewhat radioactive, and as a replacement, electrodes with
larger concentrations of lanthanum oxide can be used. Electrodes containing
zirconium oxide (or zirconia) increase the current capacity while improving
arc stability and starting and increasing electrode life.

• Electrode manufacturers may create alternative tungsten alloys with specified

metal additions, and these are designated with the classification EWG under
the AWS system.

• Filler metals are also used in nearly all applications of GTAW, the major
exception being the welding of thin materials. Filler metals are available with
different diameters and are made of a variety of materials. In most cases, the
filler metal in the form of a rod is added to the weld pool manually, but some
applications call for an automatically fed filler metal, which is fed from rolls.
 shielding gases
• Necessary in GTAW to protect the welding area from atmospheric
gases such as nitrogen and oxygen, which can cause fusion
defects, porosity, and weld metal embrittlement if they come in
contact with the electrode, the arc, or the welding metal. The gas
also transfers heat from the tungsten electrode to the metal, and it
helps start and maintain a stable arc.
• The selection of a shielding gas depends on several factors,
including the type of material being welded, joint design, and
desired final weld appearance.
• Argon is the most commonly used shielding gas for GTAW,
since it helps prevent defects due to a varying arc length. When
used with alternating current, the use of argon results in high
weld quality and good appearance.
• Another common shielding gas, helium, is most often used to
increase the weld penetration in a joint, to increase the welding
speed, and to weld conductive metals like copper and
aluminum.
• A significant disadvantage is the difficulty of striking an arc
with helium gas, and the decreased weld quality associated
with a varying arc length.
 Shielding Gas
• Inert Gas - Argon , Helium
• Common Shielding Gas – Argon
• When Helium Is Used – Called Heli – Arc Welding
• When Argon Is Used – Called Argon Arc Welding
• Inert Gas Prevents Contamination Of Molten Metal
• It Prevents Oxidation Of Tungsten Rod
• It Ionizes Air Gap and Stabilizes Arc
• It Cools Welding Torch & Tungsten Rod
 Shielding Gas
• Argon - Purity 99.95%

• Impure Argon Results In Porosities

• Purity Verified by Fusing BQ CS plate

• Leakage of Argon in Torch Results in

Porosity.

• Check Leakage by Closing the Ceramic Cup

With Thump
 Argon Gas Cylinder
• Light Blue In Colour

• Full Cylinder Pressure: 1800 psi ( 130 Kgs / Cm2 )

• Volume Of Argon In Full Cylinder: 7.3 M3

• Commercial Argon (99.99%) Cost: Rs 70/- Per M3

• High Purity Argon (99.999) Cost: Rs 87/- Per M3

 Back Purging
Purging Gas Commercial Argon or• Applicable to Single
Nitrogen Sided full penetration
• Prevents oxidation of
Filler Wire Welding Torch root pass from opposite
side of weld
• Essential for high alloy
Purging steels, nonferrous
Purging Gas In
Gas Out metals and alloys
Purging Root Pass • Desirable For All
chamber Material
• Argon-helium mixtures are also frequently utilized in
GTAW, since they can increase control of the heat input
while maintaining the benefits of using argon. Normally,
the mixtures are made with primarily helium (often about
75% or higher) and a balance of argon. These mixtures
increase the speed and quality of the AC welding of
aluminum, and also make it easier to strike an arc.
• Argon-hydrogen, is used in the mechanized welding of
light gauge stainless steel, but because hydrogen can
cause porosity, its uses are limited.
• Nitrogen can sometimes be added to argon to help
stabilize the austenite in austentitic stainless steels and
increase penetration when welding copper. Due to
porosity problems in ferritic steels and limited benefits,
however, it is not a popular shielding gas additive.
 Materials
• Most commonly used to weld stainless steel
and nonferrous materials, such as aluminum
and magnesium, but it can be applied to
nearly all metals, with notable exceptions
being lead and zinc.
• Its applications involving carbon steels are
limited not because of process restrictions,
but because of the existence of more
economical steel welding techniques, such
as gas metal arc welding and
shielded metal arc welding.
• GTAW can be performed in a variety of other-
than-flat positions, depending on the skill of
the welder and the materials being welded.
A TIG weld showing an Closeup view of an
accentuated AC etched zone aluminium TIG weld AC etch zone
• Aluminum and magnesium are most often welded using
alternating current, but the use of direct current is also
possible, depending on the properties desired. Before
welding, the work area should be cleaned and may be
preheated to 175-200 °C for aluminum or to a maximum
of 150 °C for thick magnesium workpieces to improve
penetration and increase travel speed.
• AC current can provide a self-cleaning effect, removing
the thin, refractory aluminium oxide (sapphire) layer that
forms on aluminium metal within minutes of exposure to
air. This oxide layer must be removed for welding to
occur. When alternating current is used, pure tungsten
electrodes or zirconiated tungsten electrodes are
preferred over thoriated electrodes, as the latter are
more likely to "spit" electrode particles across the
welding arc into the weld.
• Blunt electrode tips are preferred, and pure argon
shielding gas should be employed for thin workpieces.
Introducing helium allows for greater penetration in
thicker workpieces, but can make arc starting difficult.
• Direct current of either polarity, positive or negative,
can be used to weld aluminum and magnesium as
well.
• DCEN allows for high penetration, and is most
commonly used on joints with butting surfaces,
such as square groove joints. Short arc length
(generally less than 2 mm or 0.07 in) gives the best
results, making the process better suited for
automatic operation than manual operation.
Shielding gases with high helium contents are most
commonly used with DCEN, and thoriated electrodes
are suitable.
• DCEP is used primarily for shallow welds, especially
those with a joint thickness of less than 1.6 mm.
While still important, cleaning is less essential for
DCEP than DCEN, since the electron flow from the
workpiece to the electrode helps maintain a clean
weld. A large, thoriated tungsten electrode is
commonly used, along with a pure argon shielding
gas.
 Steels
• For GTA welding of carbon and stainless steels, the
selection of a filler material is important to prevent
excessive porosity. Oxides on the filler material and
workpieces must be removed before welding to prevent
contamination, and immediately prior to welding, alcohol
or acetone should be used to clean the surface.
• Preheating is generally not necessary for mild steels less
than one inch thick, but low alloy steels may require
preheating to slow the cooling process and prevent the
formation of martensite in the heat-affected zone.
• Tool steels should also be preheated to prevent cracking
in the heat-affected zone. Austenitic stainless steels do
not require preheating, but martensitic and ferritic
chromium stainless steels do. A DCEN power source is
normally used, and thoriated electrodes, tapered to a
sharp point, are recommended. Pure argon is used for
thin workpieces, but helium can be introduced as
thickness increases.
 Dissimilar metals
• Welding dissimilar metals often introduces new difficulties to
GTA welding, because most materials do not easily fuse to
form a strong bond. Welds of dissimilar materials have
numerous applications in manufacturing, repair work, and the
prevention of corrosion and oxidation. In some joints, a
compatible filler metal is chosen to help form the bond, and
this filler metal can be the same as one of the base materials
(eg:, using a stainless steel filler metal stainless steel and
carbon steel as base materials), or a different metal (such as
the use of a nickel filler metal for joining steel and cast iron).
Very different materials may be coated or "buttered" with a
material compatible with a particular filler metal, and then
welded. In addition, GTAW can be used in cladding or
overlaying dissimilar materials.
• When welding dissimilar metals, the joint must have an
accurate fit, with proper gap dimensions and bevel angles.
Care should be taken to avoid melting excessive base material.
Pulsed current is particularly useful for these applications, as it
helps limit the heat input. The filler metal should be added
quickly, and a large weld pool should be avoided to prevent
dilution of the base materials.
 Process variations
Pulsed-current
• In the pulsed-current mode, the welding current rapidly
alternates between two levels.
• The higher current state is known as the pulse current,
while the lower current level is called the background
current.
• During the period of pulse current, the weld area is
heated and fusion occurs. Upon dropping to the
background current, the weld area is allowed to cool and
solidify.
• Pulsed-current GTAW has a number of advantages,
including lower heat input and consequently a reduction
in distortion and warpage in thin workpieces. In
addition, it allows for greater control of the weld pool,
and can increase weld penetration, welding speed, and
quality. A similar method, manual programmed GTAW,
allows the operator to program a specific rate and
magnitude of current variations, making it useful for
specialized applications.
Dabber
• The Dabber variation is used to precisely place
weld metal on thin edges. The automatic
process replicates the motions of manual
welding by feeding a cold filler wire into the weld
area and dabbing (or oscillating) it into the
welding arc. It can be used in conjunction with
pulsed current, and is used to weld a variety of
alloys, including titanium, nickel, and tool steels.
Common applications include rebuilding seals in
jet engines and building up saw blades,
milling cutters, drill bits, and mower blades
 Heat-affected zone

The cross-section of a welded butt joint, with the

darkest gray representing the weld or fusion zone,
the medium gray the heat affected zone, and
the lightest gray the base material.
• The heat-affected zone (HAZ) is the area of base
material, either a metal or a thermoplastic, which has
had its microstructure and properties altered by welding.
The heat from the welding process and subsequent re-
cooling causes this change in the area surrounding the
weld. The extent and magnitude of property change
depends primarily on the base material, the weld filler
metal, and the amount and concentration of heat input
by the welding process.
• The thermal diffusivity of the base material plays a large
role – if the diffusivity is high, the material cooling rate is
high and the HAZ is relatively small. Alternatively, a low
diffusivity leads to slower cooling and a larger HAZ. The
amount of heat inputted by the welding process plays an
important role as well, as processes like oxyfuel welding
use high heat input and increase the size of the HAZ.
Processes like laser beam welding give a highly
concentrated, limited amount of heat, resulting in a small
HAZ. Arc welding falls between these two extremes, with
the individual processes varying somewhat in heat input
• To calculate the heat input for arc welding
procedures, the formula used is:

where Q = heat input (kJ/mm), V = voltage (V), I =

current (A), and S = welding speed (mm/min). The
efficiency is dependent on the welding process used,
with shielded metal arc welding having a value of
0.75, gas metal arc welding and
submerged arc welding, 0.9, and
gas tungsten arc welding, 0.8.
 Types Of GTAW Power Source
• Inverter- DC

• Thyrister – DC

• Motor Generator – DC

• Rectifier – DC

• Transformer – AC (For Aluminium Welding Only)

 Power Source
• Provides Electric Energy – Arc – Heat

• Drooping Characteristic

• OCV – Appx. 90V,

• Current Range 40 A to 300 A ( Capacity Of M/s)

• Arc Voltage 18V to 26V

Characteristic Of GTAW
Power Source
Drooping – Constant Current

V
V1
Vertical
V2
Curve

A
A1 A2
 High Frequency Unit
• Provides High Voltage Electric Energy With Very
high Frequency – 10000 Cycles / Sec.

• Initiates low energy Arc / Spark & Ionize Air Gap.

• Electrically charges Air Gap For welding Current to

Jump Across the Tungsten Tip & BM to Form An
Arc.

• HF Gets Cut Off, Once Welding Arc Struck.

 Water Cooling System

• Provides Cooling Water To Welding Torch.

• Cools Tungsten Rod, Torch handle & Welding

Cable.

• Cooling Water Returns through Flexible Tube Which

Carries welding cable within.
 Pedal Switch
When Pedal Pressed
• Solenoid valve opens, Argon gas flows
• High Frequency current jumps from
tungsten rod generating sparks
Switches system • Welding current flows generating an
arc across tungsten rod and work.
on And off in sequence
• High frequency gets cut off from the
system & welding continues.
When Pedal Released
1 Current gets cut off, Arc extinguishes
2 Gas flow remains for few more
seconds before it stops.
Argon Gas Cylinder- Pressure Regulator +
Flow Meter

• Cylinder Stores Argon At

Cylinder Valve High Pressure
Pressure gauges

• Regulator Regulates
Flow Meter
Cylinder Pressure to
Flow Regulator Working Pressure
Pressure Regulator
Connection To Torch • Flow Meter Controls Flow
Rate
Argon Cylinder
Tools For GTAW

• Head Screen

• Hand gloves

• Chipping Hammer

• Wire Brush

• Spanner Set
 Filler Wire

• Added Separately to the weld pool.

• Compatible to base metal

• Used in cut length for manual welding.

• Used from layer wound spool for automatic

welding.

• Sizes :- 0.8, 1, 1.2, 1.6, 2, 2.4 & 3 mm

 ASME Classification Of Filler Wire
SS Filler Wire:
SFA-5.9, ER 308, 308L, 316, 316L, 347, 309
LAS Filler Wire:
SFA 5.28, ER 70S A1, ER 80S B2, ER90S D2,
ER 80S Ni2
CS Filler Wire:
SFA- 5.18 , ER 70S2
C = 0.07%, Mn = 0.9% – 1.4%, Si = 0.4 – 0.7%, P = 0.025%, S = 0.035%
 Dos & Don'ts In GTAW
Dos Don’ts
• Always Connect • Don’t Strike Arc With
Electrode – Ve Electrode + Ve
• Keep Always Flow • Don’t strike Arc Without
Meter Vertical Argon Flow
• Check & Confirm • Don’t Strike Arc By
Argon Purity touching Tungsten Rod
• Clean Groove & Filler • Don’t Touch Weld Pool
wire With Acetone With Tungsten Rod
• Grind Tungsten Tip to • Don’t Lift and break Arc
Point
 Dos & Don'ts In GTAW
Dos Don’ts
• Break The Arc Only By • When Arc is Stopped Don’t
Pedal Switch Lift Torch immediately.
• Lift The Torch only After • Don’t Weld With Blend
5 Sec Of Arc Break. Tungsten Rod
• Ensure Pre Purging & • Don’t Weld With Argon
Post Purging of 5Sec Leaking Torch
• Ensure Argon Flow & • Don’t Weld Without Water
Water Circulation To Circulation
Torch
 Dos & Don'ts In GTAW
Dos Don’ts
• Provide Back Purging For • Don’t Weld Single Sided
Single Sided Full Full Penetration Welds
Penetration Welds Without Back Purging
• Use N2 or Argon as Back • Don’t Use N2 As Back
Purging Gas For CS & Purging Gas For Non
LAS Ferrous Alloys
• Use Argon As Back • Don’t Empty Ag Cylinders
Purging Gas For SS & Fully.
Non Ferrous Alloys
 Defects In GTAW
1. Cracks 2. Lack Of Fusion
3. Porosity 4. Undercut
5.Lack Of Penetration 6. Excess Penetration

7.Overlap 8. Suck Back

9. Under Flush 10. Burn Through
11. Tungsten Inclusion 11.Stray Arcing
 Crack
Cause Remedy
1) Wrong Consumable 1) Use Right Filler Wire
2) Wrong Procedure 2) Qualify Procedure
3) Improper Preheat 3) Preheat Uniformly
4) Inadequate Thickness 4) Add More Filler Wire
In Root Pass in root Pass

crack
 Lack Of Fusion

Cause Remedy
1) Inadequate Current 1) Use Right Current
2) Wrong Torch angle 2) Train /Qualify welder
3) Improper bead placement 3) Train/Qualify Welder

Lack Of Fusion
 Porosity
Cause Remedy
1) Impure Argon Gas 1) Replace Argon Cylinder
2) Argon Leak Within Torch 2) Replace Leaking Torch
3) Defective Filler Wire 3) Replace Filler Wire
4) Wet surface of BM 4) Clean & Warm BM
5) Rusted / Pitted Filler wire 5) Clean Filler Wire
6) Improper Flow Of Argon 6) Provide Gas lens

Porosity . .
 Undercut

Cause Remedy
1) Excess Current 1) Reduce the Current
2) Excess Voltage 2) Reduce Arc length
3) Improper Torch angle 3) Train & Qualify the Welder

Under cut
 Lack Of Penetration*
Cause Remedy
1) Excess Root Face 1) Reduce Root Face
2) Inadequate Root opening 2) Increase Root Opening
3) Over size Filler Wire 3) Reduce Filler Wire size
4) Wrong Direction of Arc 4) Train / Qualify Welder
5) Improper bead placement 5) Train / Qualify Welder
6) Improper weaving technique 6) Train & Qualify Welder

* Applicable to SSFPW

LOP
 Excess Penetration*
Cause Remedy
1)Excess root opening 1) Reduce root gap
2) Excess Current 2) Reduce Current
3) Inadequate root face 3) Increase Root face
4) Excess Weaving 4) Train Welder
5) Wrong Direction Of Arc 5) Train Welder
* Applicable to SSFPW

Excess Penetration
 Overlap
Cause Remedy
1) Wrong Direction Of Arc 1) Train & Qualify Welder
2) Inadequate Current 2) Increase Current
3) Excess Filler Wire 3) Reduce Filler Metal

Overlap
 Suck Back*
Cause Remedy

1) Excess weaving in root 1) Reduce weaving

2) Excess Current 2) Reduce Current
3) Inadequate root face 3) Increase root face
4) Wrong Electrode angle 4) Train / Qualify Welder
* Applicable to SSFPW in 4G, 3G & 2G

Suck Back
 Under flush
Cause Remedy
1) Inadequate weld beads in 1) Weld some more beads
final layer in final layer
2) Inadequate understanding on 2) Train / Qualify welder
weld reinforcement
3) Wrong selection of filler wire 3) Train / Qualify Welder
size

Under flush
 Burn through*
Cause Remedy
1) Excess Current 1) Reduce the Current
2) Excess Root opening 2) Reduce root opening
3) Inadequate Root face 3) Increase root face
4) Improper weaving 4) Train / Qualify Welder

*Applicable to root pass

Burn trough
 Tungsten Inclusion
Cause Remedy
1) Ineffective HF 1) Rectify HF Unit
2) Improper Starting of Arc 2) Never Touch Weld
With Tungsten Rod
3) Tungsten Tip Comes in 3) Train / Qualify welder
Contact With Weld

Tungsten Inclusion
 Stray Arcing
Cause Remedy
1) HF Not In Operation 1) Rectify HF Unit
2) Inadequate Skill of Welder 2) Train the Welder

Arc Strikes
Gas Metal Arc Welding
 What Is GMAW ?
• A Fusion Welding Process – Semi Automatic
• Arc Between Consumable Electrode &Work
• Arc Generated by Electric Energy From a Rectifier
/ Thyrester / Inverter
• Filler Metal As Electrode Continuously fed From
Layer Wound Spool.
• Filler Wire Driven to Arc By Wire Feeder through
Welding Torch
• Arc & Molten Pool Shielded by Inert Gas through
Torch / Nozzle
 Gas Metal Arc Welding
• MIG – Shielding Gas Ar / Ar + O2 / Ar + Co2

• MAG – Shielding Gas Co2

• FCAW – Shielding Gas Co2 With Flux cored

Wire
Note:- Addition of 1 – 5% of O2 or 5 – 10% of Co2 in Ar.
increases wetting action of molten metal
Power Source For MIG / MAG

• Inverter- DC
• Thyrister – DC
• Motor Generator – DC
• Rectifier – DC
Characteristic Of GMAW Power
Source
Constant V / Linear Characteristic

Appx. Horizontal
Curve
V1
V2

A1 A2
A
 Current & Polarity

DC- Electrode +Ve

Stable Arc
Smooth Metal Transfer
Relatively Low Spatter
Good Weld Bead Characteristics
DC- Electrode – Ve, Seldom Used
AC- Commercially Not In use
 Accessories Of GMAW
• Power Source
• Wire Feed Unit
• Shielding Gas Cylinder, Pressure gauges/
Regulator, Flow meter (Heater For Co2 )
• Welding Torch
• Water Cooling System (For Water cooled Torch)
• Earthing Cable With Clamp
 Tools For GMAW
• Head Screen With DIN 13 / 14 Dark Glass
• Hand Wire Brush / Grinder With Wire Wheel
• Cutting Pliers
• Hand Gloves
• Chipping Hammer / Chisel & hammer
• Spanner Set
• Cylinder Key
• Anti-spatter Spray
• Earthing Cable With Clamp
 GMAW Torch
On / Off Switch

Shielding Gas Torch Handle

Spring Conduit

Gas Cup Nozzle Tip

Filler Wire - Electrode
Arc
Job
 Equipment & Accessories
Pressure Regulator
Flow Meter

Shielding Gas
Heater
Solenoid (Only For
Switch Co2)
Valve
Shielding Gas
Cylinder
Welding Torch Wire Feeder
Copper Cup Wire Inside Spring Lining
Electrode / Contact Tip Wire
Wire Spool
Argon / Co2
Arc
– Shielding
Work
Power Source
With Inductance
Torch With Cable Max. 3Mtr
+ –
 Types Of Wire Feeding In
GMAW
• Push Type
– Wire fed in to The torch by Pushing through Flexible
Conduit From A Remote Spool
• Pull Type
– Feed Rollers Mounted on The Torch Handle Pulls the
Wire From A Remote spool
• Self Contained
– Wire Feeder & The Spool On the Torch
 Function Of Shielding Gas In
GMAW
• Prevents Air contamination of weld Pool
• Prevents Contamination During Metal Transfer
• Increases fluidity of molten metal
• Minimizes the spatter generation
• Helps in even & uniform bead finish
 Shielding Gases For GMAW
• MIG: Argon Or Helium
For SS, CS, LAS & Non-ferrous Mt & Al
• MIG: Ar + 1 to 2 % O2, Wire With Add. Mn & Si
For SS, CS, LAS & Non-ferrous Mt & Al
• MIG: Ar + 5 to 20 % Co2 Wire With Add. Mn & Si
For SS, CS, LAS & Non-ferrous Mt & Al
• MAG: Co2 With Solid Wire
For CS & LAS
• FCAW: Co2 With Flux Cored Wire
For CS, LAS & SS Overlay
 ASME Classification For CS
GMAW Wire
• SFA 5.18 : - CS Solid Wire
ER 70 S – 2, ER 70 S – 3
ER 70 S – 6, ER 70 S – 7

• SFA 5.20 :- CS Flux Cored Wire

E 71 T-1, E 71 T-2 ( Co2 Gas )
E 71 T-1M, E 71 T-2M ( Ar + Co2 Mix)
 GMAW CS Wire
• Generally Copper Coated
– Prevents Oxidation / rusting in Storage
– Promotes Electric Conductivity in Arcing
• Available In Solid & Flux Cored
– Size in mm 0.8, 1, 1.2, 1.6, 2, 2.4, 3
• Manganese & Silicon ( Mn 1 – 2 %, Si Max 1%)
– Act As Deoxidizing Agents
– Eliminate Porosity
– Increase Wetting Of Molten Pool
 Metal Transfer In MIG

• Short-Circuiting / Dip Transfer

• Globular Transfer

• Spray Transfer
 Metal Transfer In MIG
CS Solid Wire 1.2 mm Φ
Up to 120A 120 to 250A Above230A

14 – 22V 16 – 24 V 24 – 35 V

Dip/Short Circuiting Globular Spray

Co2 or Ar Co2 or Ar Only Ar / Ar+O2

 Short-Circuiting / Dip Transfer
• Wire In Contact With Molten Pool 20 to 200 times per Second
• Operates in Low Amps & Volts – Less Deposition
• Best Suitable for Out of Position Welding
• Suitable for Welding Thin Sheets
• Relatively Large opening of Root Can be Welded
• Less Distortion
• Best Suitable for Tacking in Set up
• Prone to Get Lack of Fusion in Between Beads
 Globular Transfer

• Metal transferred in droplets of Size grater than

wire diameter
• Operates in Moderate Amps & Volts – Better
Deposition
• Common in Co2 Flux Cored and Solid Wire
• Suitable for General purpose Welding
 Spray Transfer
• Metal transferred in multiples of small droplets
• 100 to 1000 Droplets per Second
• Metal Spray Axially Directed
• Electrode Tip Remains pointed
• Applicable Only With Inert Gas Shielding –
Not With Co2
• Operates in Higher Amps & Volts – Higher
Deposition Rate
• Not Suitable for Welding in Out of Position.
• Suitable for Welding Deep Grooves
 Pulsed Spray Welding
• Power Source Provides Two different
Current Levels“Background” and “Peak”at
regular interval
• “Background” & “Peak” are above and
below the Average Current
• Best Suitable for Full Penetration Open
Root Pass Welding
• Good Control on Bead Shape and Finish
 Synergic Pulse GMAW
• Parameters of Pulsed Current (Frequency,
Amplitude, Duration, Background Current) Related
to Wire feed Rate
• One Droplet detaches with each pulse
• An Electronic Control unit synchronizes wire feed
Rate with Pulse Parameters
• Best Suitable for Most Critical Full Penetration
Open Root Pass Welding
• Good Control on Open Root penetration, Bead
Shape and Finish
 GMAW Process Variables
• Current
• Voltage
• Travel Speed
• Stick Out / Electrode Extension
• Electrode Inclination
• Electrode Size
• Shielding Gas & Flow Rate
• Welding Position
 Parameter For 1.2 ф FC Wire
• Current – 200 to 240 A
• Voltage – 22-24
• Travel Speed 150 to 250 mm / min
• Stick Out / Electrode Extension – 15 to 20 mm
• Electrode Inclination – Back Hand Technique
• Shielding Gas – Co2, 12 L/Min
 Parameter For 1.2 ф Solid Wire
• Current – 180 to 220 A
• Voltage – 20-22
• Travel Speed 150 to 200 mm / min
• Stick Out / Electrode Extension – 10 to 20 mm
• Electrode Inclination – Back Hand Technique
• Shielding Gas – Co2 – 12 L/Min
 Results In Change Of Parameters
• Increase In Current
– More deposition, More Penetration, More BM Fusion
• Increase In Voltage
– More Weld Bead Width, Less Penetration, Less Reinforcement, Excess
Spatter
• Increase In Travel Speed
– Decrease in Penetration, Decrease in Bead Width,
• Decrease In Gas Flow rate
– Results In porosity
• Long Stick Out / Electrode Extension
– Excess Weld Deposit With Less Arc intensity, Poor Bead Finish,
Shallow Penetration
 Common Defects In GMAW
1. Porosity 2. Spatters
3. Lack Of Fusion 4. Under Cut
5. Over Lap 6. Slag
7. Crack 8. Lack Of Penetration
9. Burn Through 10. Convex Bead
11. Unstable Arc 12. Wire Stubbing
 Porosity

Cause Remedy
1) Less Mn & Si In Wire 1) Use High Mn & Si Wire
2) Rusted / Unclean BM / Groove 2) Clean & warm the BM
3) Rusted wire 3) Replace the Wire
4) Inadequate Shielding Gas 4) Check & Correct Flow Rate

Porosity . .
 Spatters
Cause Remedy
1) Low Voltage 1) Increase Voltage
2) Inadequate Inductance 2) Increase Inductance
3) Rusted BM surface 3) Clean BM surface
4) Rusted Core wire 4) Replace By Rust Free wire
5) Quality Of Gas 5) Change Over To Ar + Co2

Spatters
• ••
 Lack Of Fusion
Cause Remedy
1) Inadequate Current 1) Use Right Current
2) Inadequate Voltage 2) Use Right Voltage
3) Wrong Polarity 3) Connect Ele. + Ve
4) Slow Travel Speed 4) Increase Travel speed
5) Excessive Oxide On Joint 5) Clean Weld Joint

Lack Of Fusion
 Undercut

Cause Remedy
1) Excess Voltage 1) Reduce Voltage
2) Excess Current 2) Reduce Current
3) Improper Torch angle 3) Train & Qualify the Welder
4) Excess Travel Speed 4) Reduce Travel Speed

Under cut
 Overlap
Cause Remedy
1) Too Long Stick Out 1) Reduce Stick Out

2) Inadequate Voltage 2) Increase the Voltage

Overlap
 Slag
Cause Remedy
1) Inadequate Cleaning 1) Clean each bead
2) Inadequate Current 2) Use Right Current
3) Wrong Torch angle 3) Train / Qualify welder
4) Improper bead placement 4) Train / Qualify Welder

Slag
 Crack
Cause Remedy
1) Incorrect Wire Chemistry 1) Use Right Wire
2) Too Small Weld Bead 2) Increase wire Feed
3) Improper Preheat 3) Preheat Uniformly
4) Excessive Restrain 4) Post heating or ISR

crack
 Lack Of Penetration*
Cause Remedy
1) Too Narrow Groove Angle 1) Widen The Groove
2) Inadequate Root opening 2) Increase Root Opening
3) Too Low Welding current 3) Increase Current
4) Wrong Torch angle 4) Train / Qualify Welder
5) Puddle Roll In Front Of Arc 5) Correct Torch Angle
6) Long Stick Out 6) Reduce Stick Out

* Applicable to SSFPW

LOP
 Burn through*
Cause Remedy
1) Excess Current 1) Reduce the Current
2) Excess Root opening 2) Reduce root opening
3) Inadequate Root face 3) Increase root face
4) Too Low Travel Speed 4) Increase Speed
5) Quality Of Gas 5) Use Ar + Co2

*Applicable to root pass

Burn trough
 Convex Bead Finish
Cause Remedy
1) Low Current 1) Increase Current
2) Low Voltage 2) Increase Voltage
3) Low Travel Speed 3) Increase Travel Speed
4) Low Inductance 4) Increase Inductance
5) Too Narrow Groove 5) Increase Groove Width

Uneven bead finish

 Unstable arc

Cause Remedy
1) Improper Wire Feed 1) Check Wire Feeder
2) Improper Gas Flow 2) Check Flow Meter
3) Twisted Torch Conduit 3) Straighten Torch Cab
 Wire Stubbing

Cause Remedy
1) Too Low Voltage 1) Increase Voltage
2) Too High Inductance 2) Reduce Inductance
3) Excess Slope 3) Adjust Slope
4) Too Long Stick Out 4) Reduce Stick Out
Important Terminology used in
Critical Welding
• Preheating
• Post Heating or Dehydrogenation
• Intermediate Stress leaving
• Inter pass Temperature
• Post Weld Heat Treatment
 What Is Preheating?
• Heating the base metal along the weld joint to a
predetermined minimum temperature immediately
before starting the weld.
• Heating by Oxy fuel flame or electric resistant coil
• Heating from opposite side of welding wherever
possible
• Temperature to be verified by thermo chalks prior to
starting the weld
 Why Preheating?
• Preheating eliminates possible cracking of weld and HAZ
• Applicable to
Hardenable low alloy steels of all thickness
Carbon steels of thickness above 25 mm.
Restrained welds of all thickness

• Preheating temperature vary from 75°C to 200°C

depending on hardenability of material, thickness & joint
restrain
How does Preheating Eliminate Crack?

• Preheating promotes slow cooling of weld and

HAZ
• Slow cooling softens or prevents hardening of weld
and HAZ
• Soft material not prone to crack even in restrained
condition
 What Is Post Heating?
• Raising the pre heating temperature of the weld joint to a
predetermined temperature range (250° C to 350° C) for
a minimum period of time (3 Hrs) before the weld cools
down to room temperature.
• Post heating performed when welding is completed or
terminated any time in between.
• Heating by Oxy fuel flame or electric resistant coil
• Heating from opposite side of welding wherever possible
• Temperature verified by thermo chalks during the period
 Why Post Heating?
• Post heating eliminates possible delayed cracking
of weld and HAZ
• Applicable to
Thicker hardenable low alloy steels
Restrained hardenable welds of all thickness
• Post heating temperature and duration depends on
hardenability of material, thickness & joint
restrain
 How does Post Heating Eliminate
Crack?
• SMAW introduces hydrogen in weld metal
• Entrapped hydrogen in weld metal induces
delayed cracks unless removed before cooling to
room temperature
• Retaining the weld at a higher temperature for a
longer duration allows the hydrogen to come out
of weld
What Is Intermediate Stress Relieving?
• Heat treating a subassembly in a furnace to a
predetermined cycle immediately on completion of
critical restrained weld joint / joints without
allowing the welds to go down the pre heat
temperature. Rate of heating, Soaking temperature,
Soaking time and rate of cooling depends on
material quality and thickness
• Applicable to
Highly restrained air hardenable material
 Why Intermediate Stress Relieving?

• Restrained welds in air hardenable steel highly

prone to crack on cooling to room temperature.

• Cracks due to entrapped hydrogen and built in stress

• Intermediate stress relieving relieves built in stresses

and entrapped hydrogen making the joint free from
crack prone
 What Is Inter- Pass Temperature?
• The temperature of a previously layed weld bead
immediately before depositing the next bead over
it
• Temperature to be verified by thermo chalk prior
to starting next bead
• Applicable to
Stainless Steel
Carbon Steel & LAS with minimum impact
 Why Inter Pass Temperature?
• Control on inter pass temperature avoids over
heating, there by
Refines the weld metal with fine grains
Improves the notch toughness properties
Minimize the loss of alloying elements in
welds
Reduces the distortion
 What Is Post Weld Heat Treatment?
• Heat treating an assembly on completion of all
applicable welding, in an enclosed furnace with
controlled heating/cooling rate and soaking at a
specific temperature for a specific time.
• Rate of heating, Soaking temperature, Soaking
time and rate of cooling depends on material quality
and thickness
• Applicable to
All type of CS & LAS
 Why Post Weld Heat Treatment?

• Welded joints retain internal stresses within the

structure
• HAZ of welds remains invariably hardened
• Post Weld Heat Treatment relieves internal stresses
and softens HAZ. This reduces the cracking
tendency of the equipment in service
 Weldability

• The weldability of a material refers to its

ability to be welded. Many metals and
thermoplastics can be welded, but some
are easier to weld than others. It greatly
influences weld quality and is an important
factor in choosing which welding process
to use.
• Steels
• The weldability of steels is inversely proportional to a property known as the hardenability of the
steel, which measures the ease of forming martensite during heat treatment. The hardenability of
steel depends on its chemical composition, with greater quantities of carbon and other alloying
elements resulting in a higher hardenability and thus a lower weldability. In order to be able to
judge alloys made up of many distinct materials, a measure known as the
equivalent carbon content is used to compare the relative weldabilities of different alloys by
comparing their properties to a plain carbon steel. The effect on weldability of elements like
chromium and vanadium, while not as great as carbon, is more significant than that of copper
and nickel, for example. As the equivalent carbon content rises, the weldability of the alloy
decreases. The disadvantage to using plain carbon and low-alloy steels is their lower strength—
there is a trade-off between material strength and weldability. High strength, low-alloy steels were
developed especially for welding applications during the 1970s, and these generally easy to weld
materials have good strength, making them ideal for many welding applications.
• Stainless steels, because of their high chromium content, tend to behave differently with respect
to weldability than other steels. Austenitic grades of stainless steels tend to be the most
weldable, but they are especially susceptible to distortion due to their high coefficient of thermal
expansion. Some alloys of this type are prone to cracking and reduced corrosion resistance as
well. Hot cracking is possible if the amount of ferrite in the weld is not controlled—to alleviate the
problem, an electrode is used that deposits a weld metal containing a small amount of ferrite.
Other types of stainless steels, such as ferritic and martensitic stainless steels, are not as easily
welded, and must often be preheated and welded with special electrodes.
• Aluminum
• The weldability of aluminum alloys varies significantly, depending on the chemical composition of the alloy used. Aluminum alloys are
susceptible to hot cracking, and to combat the problem, welders increase the welding speed to lower the heat input. Preheating reduces
the temperature gradient across the weld zone and thus helps reduce hot cracking, but it can reduce the mechanical properties of the
base material and should not be used when the base material is restrained. The design of the joint can be changed as well, and a more
compatible filler alloy can be selected to decrease the likelihood of hot cracking. Aluminum alloys should also be cleaned prior to welding,
with the goal of removing all oxides, oils, and loose particles from the surface to be welded. This is especially important because of an
aluminum weld's susceptibility to porosity due to hydrogen and dross due to oxygen.
• [edit]
• References
• Lincoln Electric (1994). The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding. Cleveland: Lincoln Electric. ISBN 9994925822.
• Residual stress
• From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
• Jump to: navigation, search
• Residual stresses are stresses that remain after the original cause of the stresses has been removed. Residual stresses occur for a
variety of reasons, including inelastic deformations and heat treatment. Heat from welding may cause localized expansion, which is taken
up during welding by either the molten metal or the placement of parts being welded. When the finished weldment cools, some areas cool
and contract more than others, leaving residual stresses. Castings may also have large residual stresses due to uneven cooling.
• While un-controlled residual stresses are undesirable, many designs rely on them. For example, toughened glass and pre-stressed
concrete depend on them to prevent brittle failure. Similarly, a gradient in martensite formation leaves residual stress in some swords with
particularly hard edges (notably the katana), which can prevent the opening of edge cracks. In certain types of gun barrels made with two
tubes forced together, the inner tube is compressed while the outer tube stretches, preventing cracks from opening in the rifling when the
gun is fired. Parts are often heated or dunked in liquid nitrogen to aid assembly.
• Press fits are the most common intentional use of residual stress. Automotive wheel studs, for example are pressed into holes on the
wheel hub. The holes are smaller than the studs, requiring force to drive the studs into place. The residual stresses fasten the parts
together. Nails are another example.