Density of States

and
Fermi Energy Concepts
How do Electrons and Holes Populate the Bands?

 Density of States Concept

The number of conduction band

gc ( E ) dE states/cm3 lying in the energy
range between E and E + dE
(if E  Ec).

The number of valence band

gv ( E ) dE states/cm3 lying in the energy
range between E and E + dE
(if E  Ev).

General energy dependence of

gc (E) and gv (E) near the band edges.
How do Electrons and Holes Populate the Bands?

 Density of States Concept

Quantum Mechanics tells us that the number of available states
in a cm3 per unit of energy, the density of states, is given by:

Density of States
in Conduction Band

Density of States
in Valence Band
How do electrons and holes populate the bands?

 Probability of Occupation (Fermi Function) Concept

 Now that we know the number of available states at each energy,
then how do the electrons occupy these states?
 We need to know how the electrons are “distributed in energy”.
 Again, Quantum Mechanics tells us that the electrons follow the
“Fermi-distribution function”.

1 Ef ≡ Fermi energy (average energy in the crystal)

f (E)  ( E  E f ) / kT k ≡ Boltzmann constant (k=8.61710-5eV/K)
1 e T ≡Temperature in Kelvin (K)

 f(E) is the probability that a state at energy E is occupied.

 1-f(E) is the probability that a state at energy E is unoccupied.

 Fermi function applies only under equilibrium conditions, however,

is universal in the sense that it applies with all materials-insulators,
semiconductors, and metals.
How do electrons and holes populate the bands?

 Fermi-Dirac Distribution

Ef
 How do electrons and holes populate the bands?

 Probability of Occupation (Fermi function) Concept

1
1
2 2

1
f (E)  ( E  E f ) / kT
1 e kT = 0.0259eV @300K

 At T=0K, occupancy is “digital”: No occupation of states above Ef and

complete occupation of states below Ef .
 At T>0K, occupation probability is reduced with increasing energy.
f(E=Ef ) = 1/2 regardless of temperature.
 How do electrons and holes populate the bands?

 Probability of Occupation (Fermi function) Concept

1
1
2 2

1
f (E)  ( E  E f ) / kT
1 e kT = 0.0259eV @300K

 At T=0K, occupancy is “digital”: No occupation of states above Ef and

complete occupation of states below Ef .
 At T>0K, occupation probability is reduced with increasing energy.
f(E=Ef ) = 1/2 regardless of temperature.

 At higher temperatures, higher energy states can be occupied, leaving

more lower energy states unoccupied [1 - f(Ef )].
How do electrons and holes populate the bands?

 Probability of Occupation (Fermi function) Concept

( E  E f ) / kT  ( E  E f ) / kT
 If E  Ef +3kT  e  1 and f ( E )  e

 Consequently, above Ef +3kT the Fermi function or filled-state

probability decays exponentially to zero with increasing energy.
How do electrons and holes populate the bands?

Example 2.2
The probability that a state is filled at the conduction band edge (Ec)
is precisely equal to the probability that a state is empty at the
valence band edge (Ev).
Where is the Fermi energy locate?

Solution
The Fermi function, f(E), specifies the probability of electron occupying
states at a given energy E.
The probability that a state is empty (not filled) at a given energy E is equal
to 1- f(E).
f  EC   1  f  EV 
1
f  EC   1  f  EV   1 
1

1
1  e  EC  E F  / kT 1  e  EV  E F  / kT 1  e  E F  EV  / kT
EC  EF EV  E F EC  EV
 EF 
kT kT 2
How do electrons and holes populate the bands?

 Probability of Occupation Concept

The density of electrons (or holes) occupying the states
in energy between E and E + dE is:

Electrons/cm3 in the conduction

gc ( E ) f ( E ) dE band between E and E + dE
(if E  Ec).

Holes/cm3 in the conduction

gv ( E ) f ( E ) dE band between E and E + dE
(if E  Ev).

0 Otherwise
How do electrons and holes populate the bands?

 Fermi function and Carrier Concentration

How do electrons and holes populate the bands?

 Probability of Occupation Concept

How do electrons and holes populate the bands?

Fermi-Dirac distribution function

describing the probability that an
allowed state at energy E is occupied
by an electron.

The density of allowed states for a

semiconductor as a function of
energy; note that g(E) is zero in the
forbidden gap between Ev and Ec.

The product of the distribution

function and the density-of-states
function
How do electrons and holes populate the bands?

 Typical band structures of Semiconductor


E g (E) (E–Ec)
1/2
E E
Ec+ [1–f(E)]

CB
For Area   n E ( E ) dE  n
electrons
Ec nE(E)
Ec
number of number of electrons per unit
states per unit probability of energy per unit volume
EF energy per unit EF occupancy of The area under nE(E) vs. E is the
volume a state
electron concentration.
Ev Ev pE(E)

Area = p
For holes
VB

0
g(E) fE) nE(E) or pE(E)
Energy band Density of states Fermi-Dirac g(E) X f(E)
diagram probability Energy density of electrons in
function the CB
 Metals vs. Semiconductors

Ef

Ef

Metal Semiconductor

 Allowed electronic-energy-state systems for metal and semiconductors.

 States marked with an X are filled; those unmarked are empty.
 Metals vs. Semiconductors

 Allowed electronic-energy states g(E)

Fermi level Ef immersed in the The Fermi level Ef is at an intermediate

continuum of allowed states. energy between that of the conduction band
edge and that of the valence band edge.

Ef

Ef

Metal Semiconductor
How do electrons and holes populate the bands?

 Fermi function and Carrier Concentration

 Note that although the Fermi function has a finite value in the
gap, there is no electron population at those energies.
(that's what you mean by a gap)

 The population depends upon the product of the Fermi

function and the electron density of states. So in the gap
there are no electrons because the density of states is zero.

 In the conduction band at 0K, there are no electrons even

though there are plenty of available states, but the Fermi
function is zero.

 At high temperatures, both the density of states and the Fermi

function have finite values in the conduction band, so there is
a finite conducting population.
How do electrons and holes populate the bands?

 Energy Band Occupation

How do electrons and holes populate the bands?

 Intrinsic Energy (or Intrinsic Level)

Ef is said to equal Ei equal number of

(intrinsic energy) electrons and holes.
when…
How do electrons and holes populate the bands?

 Additional Dopant States

Intrinsic
Equal number
of electrons
and holes

n-type
More electrons
than Holes

p-type
More holes than
electrons
How do electrons and holes populate the bands?

 Pure-crystal energy-band diagram

How do electrons and holes populate the bands?

 n-type material
How do electrons and holes populate the bands?

 p-type material
 Intrinsic, n-Type, p-Type Semiconductors

 Energy band diagrams

CB

Ec Ec Ec
Ef n
Ef i
Ef p
Ev Ev Ev
VB

(a) intrinsic (b) n-type (c) p-type

np = ni2
Note that donor and acceptor energy levels are not shown.
How do electrons and holes populate the bands?

 Heavily Doped Dopant States

E
CB
CB EFn
Impurities
forming Ec Ec
bands
g(E) Ev Ev
EFp
VB

Degenerated n-type semiconductor Degenerated p-type

Large number of donors form a semiconductor
band that overlaps the CB