THE CONDITION OF MAN IS A CONDITION OF WAR

 The Enlightenment period that followed the Middle Ages in Europe introduced new views on human nature and they were not
based on religious doctrine but instead founded on rational thought.
 Enlightenment thinkers often derived differences in opinion concerning the true nature of the human condition and human
behavior.
 They had different views on the so-called
 ‘STATE OF NATURE”

 The aim of understanding the human nature was to create or at least try to design a system of government that met the needs of its citizens and would
promote good behaviors and counteract bad ones.

 Born in 1588 Thomas Hobbes was educated at Oxford and he he spent a decade in exile in Paris where he wrote Leviathan. It has had a profound influence
on the way we perceive the role of government and the social contract as a basis for legacy to govern.

 Hobe's political philosophy was influenced by his interest in science and his correspondence with philosophers including Rene Descartes. (drawing from
scientific writings)

 Hobbes believed everything could be reduced to its primacy components even human nature.

 English philosopher
 Who also claimed that him and ‘fear’ were siblings.

 Hobbes’ Leviathan is divided into four parts.

 The Book explains why a commonwealth may govern men and to establish a best possible way for the government to function.
 “ … during that time men live without a common power to
keep them all in awe, they are in that condition which is
called war, and such a war as is of every man against every
man.” (xiii, 8)
 rough equality of abilities
 conflicting desires
 actual fighting or threat of fighting

 none of the benefits of society

 chaos, insecurity, trauma

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Hobbes portrays humans as rational agents who seek
to maximize power and act according to self-interest,
because acting otherwise would threaten their self-
preservation.

Leviathan is the name of a monster in the biblical

book of Job, and for Hobbes the state is the ‘great
leviathan…. Which is but an Artificial Man, through
the greater stature and strength than the Natural for
whose protection and defense it was intended and in
which.
 Hobbes begins naturally with man, for Hobbes
believes the commonwealth is nothing but an
‘artificial man’
 Why does Hobbes think the commonwealth is an artificial
man?
 Man exists in the external world and is dependent upon what
nature offers to man.
 He is reactive and is constantly dependent upon the nature of society.
 There is constant change in society and this motion always keeps man
asking for more. Man has insatiable desires and wants and because of
this the statue of nature is a place where everyone is involved in
perpetual state of war.
 In the State of Nature men live in a constant state of anxiety. And since
man’s goal is to to protect his life he won’t have the ability to cultivate
in developing his rational capabilities.

 So how can man step out of the state of nature?

 According to Hobbes it is simple, a man can create a state which is
powerful yet great enough to protect all of its citizens. It is a state or a
commonwealth which is created for the purpose of protecting its
citizens.

 But, Why should the man Leave the State of Nature? Why should man
fulfill the duties of a citizen or to the state or ‘leviathan’
 Leviathan is a monarchy and the Leviathan as shown on
the title page of the book is a monarch who is above all
institutes.
 He is strong enough to protect his subjects from outside
invaders and from themselves.
 A subject’s duty to the sovereign is total and acting
otherwise is only hurting oneself.
 The commonwealth is established for self-preservation of
its subjects. Of course one has the option of leaving the
common wealth if one finds it too oppressive, but to leave
the common wealth is to re-enter the state of war that
characterizes pre-social man.
 Hobbes raises an important question in part three of the book. He asks
 Is obedience to a sovereign authority necessary or is it the same type of
obedience that is divine?
 According to Hobbes the kingdom of God exists wholly outside the natural
world and that world is not accessible to all. Therefore he believes that a
commonwealth should not subscribe to a religious authority.
 Why do you think he removes the power of the divine from society?
what type of repercussions can this have?
 He also adds that obeying civil laws is also a way of worshipping God.
The state of nature is natural is one specific sense only.
Hobbes political authority is artificial
 origin of property
 “ The distribution of materials … is the constitution of
mine, and thane … and belonged … to the sovereign
power” (xxiv, 5)
 no right of rebellion
 the sovereign forms no covenant with subjects (xviii, 4)
 no unjust laws
 “ The law is made by the sovereign power, and all that is
done by such law is warranted and owned by every one of
the people.” (xxx, 20)

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 God
 social contract
 reason & consent of governed & human nature
 Hobbes: one morality
 Cp. Machiavelli: individual morality ≠ civic morality
 Q - Why Hobbes and Machiavelli differ on this?

 next century: utilitarianism

 reason & overall good of everyone

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 the sovereign derives
authority from the people
 individuals exist before
sovereign
 individuals create
sovereign to curb human
nature
 individuals identify with
sovereign

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Thomas Hobbes
Social Contract Theory

The Leviathan
Life in a State of Nature
No laws or government.

No rules of morality.

Everyone for themselves.

Anyone has the ability to kill anyone.

Hobbes calls this a “State of WAR”.

The Leviathan
“Whatsoever therefore is consequent to a time of
war, where every man is enemy to every man,
the same consequent to the time wherein men
live without other security than what their own
strength and their own invention shall furnish
them withal.”
“In such condition there is no place for industry,
because the fruit thereof is uncertain: and
consequently no culture of the earth; no navigation,
nor use of the commodities that may be imported
by sea; no commodious building; no instruments of
moving and removing such things as require much
force; no knowledge of the face of the earth; no
account of time; no arts; no letters; no society; and
which is worst of all, continual fear, and danger of
violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor,
nasty, brutish, and short.”
Why the state of nature is bad
No industry No society

No agriculture No pleasure

No seafaring Continual Fear

Why does this occur?
There is equality of need.

There is scarcity of resources.

There is essential equality of human
power.
There is limited altruism
Most importantly everyone is focused
protecting their lives and live in
constant fear. The fear of being killed
by the other leaves them no time to
create value.
First Law of Nature

“that every man, ought to endeavor peace, as

far as he has hope of obtaining it; and when he
cannot obtain it, that he may seek and use, all
helps, and advantages of war.”

Seek peace when you can.

“Otherwise, take advantage of war to the extent
you can.”
Second Law of Nature
When other people are willing to respect and
understand your needs you should do the same
thing, you should treat others as you would want to
be treated, for the sake of peace and your own
defense.
How can man avoid the State of
Nature?

Contract Law and Morality

Enter into a covenant with other people.

This is the basis of and reason for acting morally.

Explains the foundations of contracts: you both

agree to give up some liberties.

In a state of nature, “upon any reasonable suspicion”

the contract is void. (Leviathan, 1.14.18)
Third Law of Nature
“that men perform their covenants made”

“INJUSTICE is no other than the not

performance of covenant.”

MORALITY IS BASED ON CONTRACTS

What type of contract is this?.

Self Interest (Egoism) Leads to Morality

It is in your interest to leave a state of

nature.

The only way to do that is to give up some

of your liberty by entering into a contract to
treat others as you would be treated with
other people who agree to do the same.
Self Interest (Egoism) Leads to Morality
The only way to secure this contract is for
everyone to be subject to some coercive
power.
One result is society as we know it
including a governing body and moral rules.
Another result is that it is irrational to break the
rules. Hobbes reduces the Divine and says that
obeying Civil laws is considered holy and
sacred. Hobbes believes that the State and the
Religion need to be separate because men do
The Prisoner’s Dilemma
Two criminals
Al “Scarface” Capone

Jack “Machine Gun” McGauran

Major crime
Murder of 7 people on St. Valentine’s Day
Minimal evidence connecting them to massacre.

Plenty of evidence linking them to bootlegging.

Police interrogate them in separate rooms
Police offer them each a deal.

Finger the other guy, and walk if he don’t talk.

You both stay mum, we lock the both of you

up for a year for bootlegging.

You both talk, its 20 years in the slammer.

But if he talks and you give us the silent treatment,

its 40 years at hard labor for you.
 Machine Gun

Collaborate Stay Mum

Al gets 20 Al walks
Collaborate Jack gets 20 Jack gets 40

Scarface
Al gets 40 Al gets 1
Stay Mum Jack walks Jack gets 1
Structure of a Game
Rules of the game

Who moves when -- at the same time

What do players know and when -- nothing

What actions are available at various points

Collaborate

Stay mum
 Machine Gun

Outcomes Collaborate Stay Mum

Al gets 20 Al walks
Collaborate Jack gets 20 Jack gets 40

Scarface
Al gets 40 Al gets 1
Stay Mum Jack walks Jack gets 1
Structure of a Game
Payoffs
What are the payoffs with each outcome?

Years in the slammer for the player

How do the player's rank the outcomes?

Players prefer less years in the pen

Best response for Al “Scarface” Capone

What if Jack stays mum?

 Machine Gun
Jack stays mum
Stay Mum

Al walks
Collaborate Jack gets 40

Scarface
Al gets 1
Stay Mum Jack gets 1
Al gets the least years by collaborating.

What if Jack collaborates?

 Machine Gun
Jack collaborates
Collaborate

Al gets 20
Collaborate Jack gets 20

Scarface
Al gets 40
Stay Mum Jack walks
Al gets the least years by collaborating.

Al has a dominant strategy for this game.

Al sells out and collaborates.

Best response for “Machine Gun” McGaura

What if Al stays mum?

 Machine Gun
Al stays mum
Collaborate Stay Mum

Scarface
Al gets 40 Al gets 1
Stay Mum Jack walks Jack gets 1
Jack gets the least years by collaborating.

What if Al collaborates?
 Machine Gun
Al collaborates
Collaborate Stay Mum

Al gets 20 Al walks
Collaborate Jack gets 20 Jack gets 40

Scarface
Jack gets the least years by collaborating.

Jack has a dominant strategy for this game.

Jack sells out and collaborates.

In fact

Both Al and Jack sell out and get 20 years.

Dominant strategies
A strategy that is best for a player, no matter
what strategy is chosen by the competing player
is called a dominant strategy.

A dominant strategy is a strategy that is best for a

player regardless of the strategy of the other player.
If a player has a dominant strategy in a game, we
can assume that the player will play that strategy.

If each player in a game has a dominant strategy,

it is easy to find the equilibrium of the game.

It is simply the outcome that occurs when each

player plays the dominant strategy.
Equilibrium in the prisoner’s dilemma

Al and Jack get 20 years

If both stayed mum, each would get 1 year

Collusion and/or Cooperation

Al and Jack will both stay mum

Each will get one year

But this won’t work in the long run

Why?
If Jack chooses stay mum, Hank collaborates

And vice versa

So what do we need to get the best outcome?

We need a binding contract

We need a social contract

The Social Contract
Morality is the set of rules that rational
people will agree to obey, for their mutual
benefit, provided that other people will
obey them as well.
Social Contract
Principles of social justice and moral behavior
are chosen in an original agreement

“. . . The principles that free and rational persons

concerned to further their own interests would
accept in an initial position of equality . . .”

These principles regulate all further agreements —

the kinds of social cooperation and forms of
government that are permissible
Social Contract
The social contract has two elements
1. A characterization of the initial situation,
called variously the "state of nature“, the
"original position" or the "initial bargaining
position“.
2. A characterization of the parties to the contract,
particularly in terms of their rationality and
motivation to come to agreement.
Original Position—1
• Those in the original position are behind a
“veil of ignorance”
• Living a life without a social contract
according to Hobbes is ignorance.
• “. . . No one know his place in society, his
class position or social status, nor does
anyone know his fortune in the distribution of
natural assets and abilities, his intelligence,
strength, and the like.”
Original Position—2

• “. . . parties do not know their conception of

the good or their special psychological
propensities . . .”
• “The terms of the social contact are chosen
behind a veil of ignorance. This ensures that
no one is advantaged or disadvantaged in the
choice of principles or rules by the outcome
of natural chance or the contingency of social
circumstances.”
Parties to the Contract
1. Persons are self-interested. Their preferences and
interests do not necessarily include the well being of
others.

2. Persons are presumed to want the benefits of social

interaction if they can be had without sacrifice of
individual self-interest.

3. Justice, and so a social contract, is only possible where

there is some possibility of benefit to each individual
from cooperation.
What do you think are the major
issues?
 Who Is the Sovereign?

 The sovereign holds a sword in one hand and a scepter in the other.

 The sovereign holds total power over all institutions of civilian life.

 He holds the power to guarantee a peaceful kingdom.

 Complete control over the churches, over the university curricula and what
books and opinions can be read and taught.
 So a perfect preacher of absolute government.

 Hobbes also says, fundamental equality of human beings is necessary`

 Sovereign exercises complete control over churches,
 Above all institutions Hobbes has always been something of a paradox to his
readers.
 One hand you will find Hobbes the most articulate defender of political
absolutism.
 to have complete monopoly of power within the given territory
 State is a product or contract between individuals and that the sovereign
owes his authority to the will or the consent of those he governs.
 Sovereign is authorized only to protect interests of the governed by
maintain civil peace and security.
  In that chapter, chapter 46, Hobbes writes: "There is
nothing so absurd that the old philosophers have not
some of them maintained. And I believe that scarce
anything could be more absurdly said in natural
philosophy than that which is now called
Aristotle's Metaphysics, nor more repugnant to
government than much that he had said in
his Politics, nor more ignorantly than a great part of
his Ethics." So there, you see Hobbes laying down a
challenge. What was it that he claimed to find so
absurd, repugnant and ignorant in Aristotle? Why
did he--what did he--what was he trying to un-
throne, dethrone in Aristotle?
 The sovereign he says or Leviathan this great artificial man, the
sovereign is something more like what we could call today an office,
rather than a person, as when we speak of the executive as an office.
 For Hobbes the office of political is called Sovereign.

Nature precedes art, Nature supplies the standards, the materials, the
models, for all the later arts, the city being by nature, man by nature,
nature provides the standards.
 We have a science of politics.
 Hobbes believes we can have a civil science, but because politics is a
matter of human making, of human doing of human goings on.
 We can know the political world.
 We can create a science of politics, because we make it is constructed by
us. He liberates science from knowledge, or nature or Fortuna.
  Hobbes's aspirations, not only to create a science of politics, but to
create a kind of immortal commonwealth, which is based on science
and therefore based on the proper civil science, and therefore will be
impervious to fluctuation, decay, and war and conflict, which all
other previous societies have experienced.
 State of nature is not a condition of actual fighting but what he calls a known
disposition to fight.
 So the question for us remains, which deeply challenged readers in Hobbes's
own time, what makes Hobbes' story, as I am calling it, his story about the
state of nature being a condition of war, what makes it plausible? What
makes it believable as an account of, again, the condition we are naturally
in? Why should we believe Hobbes's story and not some other story? I just
want to say a word about that before closing.