CONTENTS

• Section 1: Inspection and NDT

• Section 2: Onstream and Shutdown Inspection

• Section 3: Corrosion in Refineries

• Section 4: Selection of Materials used in Refineries

• Section 5: Quality assurance and Inspection of Welds

• Section 6: Advanced NDT Techniques

Selection of Materials
used in
Refineries
CONSIDERATIONS IN MATERIAL SELECTION

• Most of the times, we are unable to control or change the

corroding environment.

• The only option available is to select suitable material which is

capable of withstanding the anticipated corrosion attack.

• The above philosophy is used in material selection for corrosion

mitigation in the majority of cases in refinery equipment
CONSIDERATIONS IN MATERIAL SELECTION

I. GENERAL
• Compatibility with environment
• Corrosion in aqueous environment
• Withstand various forms of corrosion
• withstand high temperature attack
-- Oxidation
-- sulfidation
-- Hydrogen damage
CONSIDERATIONS IN MATERIAL SELECTION
II. WITHSTAND METALLURGICAL DEGRADATION
• Phase precipitation
• Spherodising / coarsening
• Hydrogen embrittlement
• Temper embrittlement

III.POSSESS MECHANICAL & PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

• Strength ---- tensile / yield
• Ductility / toughness
• Creep strength & creep ductility
• Workability / formability
• Weldability / maintainability
• Thermal conductivity
• Coefficient of expansion
CONSIDERATIONS IN MATERIAL SELECTION

IV. SHOULD WITSTAND SPECIFIC CORROSION IN EQUIPMENT :

• Column/vessel
• Furnace internals
• Heater tubes
• Exchanger
• Piping
• Pump/compressor
• Criticality
MATERIALS USED IN REFINERIES

Broadly classified into:

(1) Metallic
(a) Ferrous Plain carbon steels
Alloy Steels
Stainless Steels
(b) Non-Ferrous Brass, Cupro-Nickel, etc.
(2) Non-metallic Refractory, rubber, plastic, etc.
Plain Carbon Steel
• Forms the largest tonnage of material (80% of refinery equipment &
piping).
• Covers alloys of Iron and carbon with small amounts of Mn, S & P etc.
• Strength of the material increase with carbon content. Higher carbon
adversely affects the weldability.
• To retain strength and good weldability, lower C and higher Mn steels
are used known as C-Mn steels.
• The “Carbon content” in general varies between 0.1 % to 0.35%.
• Normally used for structural, storage tank & pressure vessel plates,
exchanger tubes and pipes.
• From strength point of view, economics favours the use of CS up to
427 deg C(Creep & Oxidation resistance)
Alloy steels
• Alloying elements normally used are : manganese > 1%, nickel;
chromium, molybedinum, vanadium etc
• Addition of alloying elements is to improve heat treatability;
toughness; creep strength; resistance to oxidation, hydrogen attack,
corrosion & wear etc

• Low alloy steels-> 2 to 5% alloying elements

• Medium alloy steels -> 5% to 9% alloying elements
• High alloy steels -> 9% alloying elements

• Tool steels are special carbon or alloy steels with high speed retaining
high hardness in red hot condition
  

P-NUMBERS OF STEELS USED IN REFINERIES

P-NO. TYPE
 
1. C, C – Mn
C – Mn – Si
3. C – ½ Mo, Mn – ½ Mo, ½ Cr – ½ Mo

4 1 Cr – ½ Mo,
1-1/4 Cr – ½ Mo, 1-1/4 Cr – ½ Mo-Si
2 Cr – ½ Mo
5 2-1/4 Cr – 1 Mo, 3 Cr – 1 Mo,
5 Cr – ½ Mo, 7 Cr – ½ Mo, 9 Cr – 1 Mo

6 13 Cr, 13 Cr – ½ Mo, 11 Cr – Ti
13 Cr – 4 Ni
7 12 Cr – 1AI (SS405)
13 Cr (SS410S), 17 Cr
8. Austenitic Cr – Ni stainless steels

9A 2-½ Ni, 2Ni – 1Cu

9B 3-½ Ni

10A Mn – V

10B 1 Cr – V

10C Cr – Mn – Si

10E 26 Cr – 4 Ni – 1 Mo, 27 Cr

11A 9 Ni, 5 Ni – Mo
Alloy steels

• From strength point of view, steels containing 2.5 Cr and 1% Mo

generally become more cost effective than CS at temp. above 482
deg. C

• They have useful mechanical properties up to 649 deg C

• 2.25% Cr – 1% Mo grade is widely used in refineries for Reactor,

Pressure vessels operating at high temp. & Pressure
( Hydrocracker, CRU etc)

• For improved corrosion resistance, these are often overlaid with

SS.

• Other applications for low alloy steels are furnace tubes, heat
exchanger shell, piping and separator drums etc.
Stainless Steel
• Stainless steel are the most important group of high alloy steels.
• It contains min. of 11% Cr with other alloying elements such as Ni, Mo,
Ti etc.
• Three established grades are : Martensitic, Ferritic and Austenitic
• The Martensitic family contains Iron, Chromium, Carbon as major
ingredients. These are hardened by heat-treatment. The basic steel in
this family is type-420 which contains 12 – 14 % Cr and 0.15% Carbon
• They usually pit in presence of chloride.
• Hydrogen stress cracking is a problem and it requires post weld heat-
treatment
• Typical applications include valve trim, trays, valves etc.
Stainless Steel
• Family of Ferritic SS is like those of Martensitic grade in composition,
but they contain higher Cr to Carbon ratio
• They cannot be hardened by heat-treatment like martensitic grade
• Type 430 is considered the base material for this class
• They offer very good resistance to oxidation - scaling
• They are not subjected to hydrogen stress cracking like Martensitic
grade
• These steels pits in presence of chlorides
• All Feritic & Martensitic SS with Cr content above 12% are susceptible
to embrittlment at 474 deg. C. Hence it limits their use to
applications where service temp. is normally do not exceed 400 deg. C
Stainless Steel
• Austenitic SS is a widely used class. Unlike Martensitic & Ferritic
grades, they contains significant amount of Nickel in addition to
Chromium
• These are soft, tough and extremely ductile even at cryogenic
temperatures. They cannot be hardened by heat-treatment
• Type 304 is the most commonly used SS
• Suffers from pitting and stress corrosion cracking (SCC) by chlorides.
Also SCC takes place in Polythionic acid. Addition of Mo reduces the
pitting tendency- type 316SS is such a grade
• Typical application : tray components, heat exchanger tubes, reactor
cladding, heater tubes etc.
• Specialty SS include Ferritic & Austenitic SS alloys and are called
Duplex ( Ferritic / Austenitic) alloys
Austenitic stainless steel
Applicable Codes & Standards
Most of these materials are covered by:
• chemistry or property specifications of one or more of these
organizations :
• American society for Testing and Materials -ASTM
• American Society of Mechanical Engineers - ASME
• American Petroleum Institute - API
• American National Standard Institute - ANSI
• American Iron and Steel Institute - AISI
• Bureau of Indian Standard - BIS
• British Standard Institute - BSI
REFINERY STEELS - Specifications
MATERIAL PIPES TUBES PLATES CASTINGS FORGINGS

Carbon steel. A53, A106, A120, A134, A 178,A 179, A 283, A 285, A299, A 27(a), A 216, A 105, A 181,
A135, A 139, A 192, A 210, A442, A 352. A 234, A 350,
A 333,A 369,A 524, A 211,A 214, A 455, A 515, A372, A 420,
A 587, A 671, A672, A691. A 226, A 334. A 516, A 517, A 508, A 541.
A537, A 570,
A 573 (a).

Carbon- 0.5 Mo A 335, A 369, A 161 (a), A 209, A 204, A 302, A 217, A 352, A 182, A 234,
steel. (P1) A 426, A 672, A 250, A 369. A 517, A 533. A 487. A 336,A 508,
A 691. A 541.

1 Cr – 0.5 Mo A 335, A 369, A 213. A 217, A 517. A 217. A 182, A 234,

steel. A 426, A 691. A 336.
(P12)

1.25 Cr- 0.5 Mo A 335, A 369, A 199, A 200 (a), A 387, A 389(a), A 217,A 389(a). A 182, A 234,
steel. A 426, A 691. A 213. A 517. A 336,A 541.
(P11)

2 Cr – 0.5 Mo A 369. A 199, A 200 (a), ……….. ……….. ………..

steel. A 213.

2.25 Cr – 0.5 Mo A 335, A 369, A 199, A 213. A 387, A 452. A 217, A 487. A 182, A 234,
steel. A 426, A 691. A 336, A 541,
(P22) A 542.

3 Cr – 1.0 Mo A 335, A 369, A 199, A 200 (a), A 387. ……….. A 182, A 336.
steel. A 426, A 691. A 213.  
 REFINERY STEELS - Specifications
MATERIAL PIPES TUBES PLATES CASTINGS FORGINGS

5 Cr – 0.5 Mo steel. A 335, A 369, A 199, A 200 (a), A 387. A 217. A 182, A 234,
(P5) A 426, A 691. A 213. A 336.

7 Cr- 0.5 Mo A 335, A 369, A 199, A 200 (a), A 387. A 217. A 182, A 234.
Steel. A 426. A 213.
(P7)

9 Cr – 1.0 Mo steel. A 335, A 369, A 199, A 200 (a), A 387. A 217. A 182, A 234.
(P9) A 426. A 213.

Martensitic stainless A 268, A 176, A 240,

steel 11-13 % Cr
(400 series)

Ferritic stainless steel A 213, A 268, A 176, A 240

13-16% Cr.
(400 series)

Austenitic stainless A 312, A 358, A 376, A 213,A 249, A A 167, A 240

steel 16 % Cr and A 409, A 409, A 430, 269,A 271 (a), A 511.
above. A 451.
(300 series)
 Oxidation Limits for Steels
Material Temperature (0C)
• Carbon Steel 454

• Carbon + ½ Mo 482

• Carbon + 1 ¼ Cr- ½ Mo 552

• Carbon + 2 ¼ Cr + 1 Mo 579

• 18 Cr – 10 Ni SS 816
SOME TYPICAL WROUGHT STAINLESS STEEL
COMPOSITIONS
AISI No. %C max %Cr %Ni %Others USES

304 0.08 18-20 8-12 Corrosive

304L 0.03 18–20 8–12 + High
321 0.08 17–19 9-12 Ti, 5X(C+N) temp.
347 0.08 17-19 9-12 Cb(Nb); 10XC service
304H 0.10 17-19 9-12 C-0.04 min.
316 0.08 16-18 10-14 2-3 Mo
317 0.08 18-20 11-15 3-4 Mo
309 0.08 22-24 12-15
310 0.08 24-26 19-22
405 0.08 0.5-11.5 -- Al 0.10 – 0.30
410 0.15 11.5-13.5
430 0.12 14-18
446 0.20 23-27
UNS S31803 0.03 21-23 4.5-6.5 Mo, 2.5-3.5 Corrosive
N, 0.08-0.2 + High
S31260 0.03 24-26 5.5-7.5 Mo, 2.5 3.5 strength
N, 0.1–0.3
DUPLEX STAINLESS STEEL
SOME TYPICAL CAST STAINLESS STEEL GRADES
& COMPOSITIONS
ACI No. %C max %Cr %Ni %Others USES
CA-15 0.15 11.5-14 1 Max ----
Corrosive
CF-8 0.08 18-21 8-11 ----
----
CF-8M 0.08 18-21 9-12 2-3 Mo
CF-8C 0.08 18-21 9-12 8xC Cb
CH-20 0.20 22-26 12-15

HC 0.50 26-30 1 max 2 Si High

HH 0.2-0.5 24-28 11-14 2 Si temp.
HK 0.2-0.6 24-28 18-22 2 Si
service
SOME COPPER AND NICKEL ALLOYS USED IN
REFINERIES
ALLOY BASIC COMPOSITION USES

443, 444, 445 Cu-28 Zn-1Sn Stems, T/Sheet

613 Cu-.35 sn-7 Al Condenser tubes

618 Cu-1 Fe-10 Al Bushing
687 Cu-20.5 Zn-2Al-.1As H.E.tubes
706 Cu-10Ni 1.3 Fe Condenser tube
710 Cu-30 Ni-2Fe --do--
Monel 67 Ni –30 Cu Sea water,acid
K-Monel66 Ni – 29 Cu – 3 Al Pumps, shafts
Inconel 76 Ni – 16 Cr – 8 Fe Furnace parts
Hastelloy B 62 Ni – 28 Mo – 5 Fe HCl
Hallelloy C 54 Ni – 17 Mo – 15 Cr – HCl,Sul.acid
5 Fe – 4 W
Materials Used in CDUs
1. Vessels and Columns: Carbon steel + 3mm CA below 3000C; SS410
clad carbon steel for 3000C and above.

2. Heater Tubes: Carbon steel up to 2800C; 5Cr-0.5Mo above 2800C

and 9Cr-1Mo above 3500C. All having 3mm CA.

3. Transfer Line: 5Cr-0.5Mo with long radius bend upto 3500C and
9Cr+1Mo above 3500C with 3mm CA.

4. Piping: Carbon steel with 1.5mm CA upto 2000C and 3mmCA upto
2800C; 5Cr.0.5Mo + 3mm CA above 2800C.
Materials Used in CDUs
5. Exchanger Tubes: 5Cr-0.5Mo above 2600C; 9Cr-1Mo above 3500C (in
case the sulfur content of shell side feed is high, say above 3.5%).

6. Exchanger Shell: Carbon steel with 1.5mm CA up to 2000C and 3mm

CA up to 2800C; 5Cr-0.5Mo + 3mm CA above 2800C.

7. Pump: Carbon steel casing and impeller up to 2600C; Carbon steel

casing and 5Cr-0.5Mo impeller up to 3000C and SS 410 casing and
impeller above 3000C.
Materials Used in VDUs

1. Corrosion primarily due to the combined effect of high Sulphur and

high temps.
2. Heater tubes – 9 Cr 1 Mo or SS 316 L.
3. Transfer line – 5 Cr ½ Mo or Solid SS 316 L or CS cladded with SS 316L.
4. Column – CS with internal cladding of SS 410 / SS 316.
5. Column trays – SS 410 S / SS 316 L.
Materials Used in Coking Units

1. Heater tubes – 5 Cr ½ Mo or 9 Cr 1 Mo.

2. Transfer line – 5 Cr ½ Mo.
3. Coker Reactor – P12 (2.25Cr-1Mo) or P11(1.25Cr-0.5M0)
4. Column – Carbon steel.
5. Column trays – SS 410S.
Materials Used in VBUs

• Heater tubes – 9 Cr 1 Mo.

• Transfer line – 5 Cr ½ Mo / 9 Cr 1 Mo.
• Fractionating tower – Carbon steel cladded with SS 410.
• Fractionating tower trays – SS 410S.
 Materials Used in FCCUs
 Reactor – P12 (2.25Cr-1Mo) or P11(1.25Cr-0.5M0) / CS with 100-125 mm
thk R.L. with RESCO RS 9 or RESCO cast 9 Li.
 Reactor riser pipe – CS with 100-125 mm thk R.L. with RESCO RS 17 EC.
 Reactor Cyclone – P11 / CS with 25 mm thk R.L with RESCO AA 22S.
 Reactor stand pipe – P11 with 19 mm thk. RESCO AA 22S / CS with 100-
125 mm thk RESCO RS 17EC.
 Regenerator shell – CS with 100 mm thk R.L. with RESCO RS 9 or125 mm
thk R,L. with RESCO RS 17 EC.
 Regenerator Stand pipe – P5 (5Cr-0.5M0) or SS 304 with 19 mm thk R.L.
with RESCO AA 22 S / CS with 125-150 mm thk R.L. with RESCO RS
17EC.
 Materials Used in FCCUs
 Regenerator Cyclone & its internals – SS 304H.
 Catalyst lift line – SS 304 H with 25 mm thk RESCO AA 22S lining.
 Reactor Overhead line – P 11 / CS with 100 – 150 mm thk R.L. with
RESCO RS 17 EC.
 Regenerator flue gas duct – SS 304H with 19 mm thk R.L. with RESCO
AA 22 S / 125 – 150 mm thk R.L. with RESCO RS 17 EC.
 Regenerator shell – CS with 100 mm thk R.L. with RESCO RS 9 or125
mm thk R,L. with RESCO RS 17 EC.
 Orifice Chamber – P5 with 19 mm thk R.L. with RESCO AA 22 S / CS
with 125-150 mm thk R.L. with RESCO RS 17 EC.
 Main & Bye-pass CO Duct – SS 304 H with 19 mm thk R.L. with RESCO
AA 22 S / CS with 125-150 mm thk R.L. with RESCO RS 17 EC.
Materials Used in Reforming Units

 Heater tubes and piping – Low alloy steel.

 Reactor – 1.25Cr-0.5MO or 2.25Cr-1Mo.
 Fractionating towers – Carbon steel and lower part lined with SS
410S.
 Fractionating tower trays – SS 410S.
HIGH TEMPERATURE REQUIREMENTS FOR HGU
REFORMER TUBES
• Resistance to oxidation

• Resistance to hydrogen attack

• High creep strength

• High creep ductility

• Resistance to thermal shocks

HISTORIC DEVELOPMENTS IN REFORMER
ALLOY TUBES
• HK-40 (used since early 1960s)

• IN-519 (used since early 1970s)

• HP-Mod (used since mid 1970s)

• HP-MA (used since early 1980s)

Materials Used in HGUs
• Up to inlet of reformer furnace, 2.25Cr – 1 Mo or 1.25 Cr-0.5 Mo pipes
are used

• Reformer furnace operates between 730-820 0C and tube wall temp. is

around 900 0C

• Hydrogen attack, creep and oxidation resistance are important factors

• Use of centrifugally cast HK-40 ( 25 Cr-20 Ni) alloy tubes and headers
and pigtails have shown good performance. 25Cr / 35NiCb group of
alloys known as HP-MOD are being used for better performance.
Materials Used in Hydrocracking Units
• Ahead of hydrogen injection : Low alloy steel
• Down stream of Hydrogen Injection : SS-321
• Preheat Furnace Tubes : SS-321
• Reactor : 2.25Cr – 1 Mo steel either SS-347 and weld
overlaid with SS309 / SS347.
• Reactor internals : SS-321
• Reactor effluent piping above 260 0C – SS-321
• Below 260 0C Generally CS
Materials Used in Sulphur Treating Units
Amine Regeneration Unit(ARU) :

• Common material – CS. To prevent alkaline cracking welds of

components in both Lean & Rich amine service should be post weld
Heat Treated regardless of service temperature.
• O/H condenser – DSS,
• Amine cooler – SS 316L
• Reflux line – SS 316L.
Materials Used in Sulphur Treating Units
Sour water stripper unit :
 Common material : Carbon steel
 Air fin coolers – SS 316L.
 Stripper tower trays – SS316L.
 Re-boiler - SS 316L.
 Overhead lines – Steam traced carbon steel lines.

Sulphur Recovery Unit (SRU) :

 Waste heat boiler - Carbon steel.
 Sulfur Condensers - Carbon steel
 Reheater tubes - CS / SS 316L.
 Run down lines - Steam traced carbon steel lines.
 Steam coil of melting pit - SS 316L.