TYPE OF

SOLUTIONS
 A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two
substances:

Solute: substance being dissolved

present in smaller amount

Solvent: substance doing the dissolving

present in larger amount
Solutes and solvents may be of any form of matter:
solid, liquid or gas.
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 Common Types of Solution
Solute Solvent
Solution Phase Phase Phase Example
gaseous
gas gas air (mostly N2 & O2)
solutions
gas liquid soda (CO2 in H2O)
liquid solutions liquid liquid vodka (C2H5OH in H2O)
solid liquid seawater (NaCl in H2O)

solid solutions solid solid brass (Zn in Cu)

 SOLUBILITY
 Solutions form between solute and solvent
molecules because of similarities between them.
Like dissolves Like

Ionic solids dissolve in water because the charged ions

(polar) are attracted to the polar water molecules.

Non-polar molecules such as oil and grease dissolve in

non-polar solvents such as kerosene.

3
 SOLUBILITY
• solutions that contain metal solutes and a metal solvent
are called alloys
• when one substance (solute) dissolves in another
(solvent) it is said to be soluble
– salt is soluble in water,

– bromine is soluble in methylene chloride

chlorocarbon that is not miscible with water,
but will dissolve in most organic solvents

• when one substance does not dissolve in another it is

said to be insoluble
– oil is insoluble in water
 Salt Dissolving in Water

partial + surround the anion

partial – surround the cation

Solvation is the process of attraction and association of molecules of a

solvent with molecules or ions of a solute. As ions dissolve in a solvent
they spread out and become surrounded by solvent molecules.
 SOLUBILITY

• there is usually a limit to the solubility of one

substance in another
– gases are always soluble in each other

– two liquids that are mutually soluble are

said to be miscible
• alcohol and water are miscible
• oil and water are immiscible
 Descriptions of Solubility
• saturated solutions have the maximum
amount of solute that will dissolve in that
solvent at that temperature
• unsaturated solutions can dissolve
more solute
• supersaturated solutions are holding
more solute than they should be able to
at that temperature
– unstable
Adding Solute to various Solutions

unsaturated

saturated

supersaturated
 Supersaturated Solution

A supersaturated solution has more dissolved solute than

the solvent can hold. When disturbed, all the solute above
the saturation level comes out of solution.
 Electrolytes
• electrolytes are substances
whose aqueous solution is a
conductor of electricity
• strong electrolytes, all the
electrolyte molecules are
dissociated into ions, SALTS
• nonelectrolytes, none of the
molecules are dissociated into
ions, SUGARS
• weak electrolytes, a small
percentage of the molecules are
dissociated into ions
 SOLUBILITY
 Solubility refers to the maximum amount of solute that
can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent.
 Many factors affect the solubility of a solute in a solution.

Type of solute
Type of solvent
Temperature

Solubility is measured in grams of solute per 100 grams

of solvent at a given temperature.
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 SOLUBILITY

 Solubility of most solids

in water increases as
temperature increases.
 Using a solubility chart,
the solubility of a solute
at a given temperature
can be determined.
 For example, KNO3 has
a solubility of 80 g/100 g
H2O (80%) at 40 C.

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 SOLUBILITY
OF GASES
 Solubility of gases in water decreases as temperature
increases.
 At higher temperatures more gas molecules have the
energy to escape from solution.
 Henry’s law states that the solubility of a gas is
directly proportional to the pressure above the
liquid.
 For example, a can of soda is carbonated at high
pressures in order to increase the solubility of CO2.
Once the can is opened, the pressure is reduced and
the excess gas escapes from the solution.
13
 Solubility and Pressure
• the solubility of gases in water depends on
the pressure of the gas
• higher pressure = higher solubility

the ure
the sure

n
n

sol
sol

es s
s
abo er pre

abo er pr
ve
ve

h
low

hig

less gas more gas

in soln
in soln
 Solubility and Pressure

When soda pop is sealed, the CO2 is under pressure.

Opening the container lowers the pressure, which decreases
the solubility of CO2 and causes bubbles to form.
 Solution Concentration

• dilute solutions have low solute

concentrations
• concentrated solutions have high
solute concentrations
 CONCENTRATION
UNITS
 The amount of solute dissolved in a certain amount of solution
(occasionally amount of solvent) is called concentration.

amount of solute
Concentration =
amount of solution
 Three types of concentration units will be studied in
this class:
Mass Percent: (m/m) and (m/v)
Molarity
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 MASS PERCENT

 Mass percent (% m/m) is defined as the mass of

solute divided by the mass of solution.

mass of solute
Mass % (m/m) = x100
mass of solution

mass of solute +
mass of solvent

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 MASS/VOLUME
PERCENT
 Mass/Volume percent (% m/v) is defined as the mass
of solute divided by the volume of solution.

mass of solute
Mass % (m/v) = x100
volume of solution

19
Example 1:
What is the mass % (m/m) of a NaOH solution that is
made by dissolving 30.0 g of NaOH in 120.0 g of water?

Mass of solution = 30.0 g + 120.0 g = 150.0 g

30.0 g
Mass % (m/m)= x100 = 20.0 %
150.0 g

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Example 2:
What is the mass % (m/v) of a solution prepared by
dissolving 5.0 g of KI to give a final volume of 250 mL?

5.0 g
Mass % (m/v) = x100 = 2.0 %
250 mL

21
 USING PERCENT
CONCENTRATION
 Some
In theexamples
preparationof percent
of solutions,
compositions,
one oftentheir
needs to
meanings, andamount
calculate the possible ofconversion factors are
solute or solution.
 shown in the
To achieve table
this, below:composition can be used as
percent
a conversion factor.

22
Example 1:
A topical antibiotic solution is 1.0% (m/v) Clindamycin. How
many grams of Clindamycin are in 65 mL of this solution?

1.0 g Clindamycin
65 mL solution x
100 mL solution = 0.65 g

23
Example 2:
How many grams of solute are needed to prepare 150 mL of a 40.0% (m/v) solution
of LiNO3?

150 mL solution x = 60. g LiNO3

24
 MOLARITY

 The most common unit of concentration used

in the laboratory is molarity (M).
 Molarity is defined as:

moles of solute
Molarity =
Liter of solution

25
Example 1:
What is the molarity of a solution containing 1.4 mol
of acetic acid in 250 mL of solution?
1L
Vol. of solution = 250 mL x = 0.25 L
1000 mL

1.4 mol acetic acid

Molarity = = 5.6 M
0.25 L

26
Example 2:
What is the molarity of a solution that contains 75 g
of KNO3 in 350 mL of solution?
1 mol
Mol of solute = 75 g x 101.1 g = 0.74 mol

1L
Vol of solvent = 350 mL x = 0.35 L
1000 mL
0.74 mol
Molarity = = 2.1 M
0.350 L
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 Preparing a 1.00 M NaCl
Solution

Weigh out Add water to

1 mole (58.45 g) dissolve the
of NaCl and add NaCl, then
it to a 1.00 L add water to Swirl to Mix
volumetric flask. the mark.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

 USING
MOLARITY
 Molarity relationship can be used to calculate:
moles solute
Molarity =
volume of solution
Amount of solute:
Moles solute = Molarity x volume
Volume of solution:
moles solute
Volume of solution =
Molarity
29
 Example 1:
How many moles of nitric acid are in 325 mL of 16 M
HNO3 solution?

1L
Vol. of solution = 325 mL x = 0.325 L
1000 mL

16 mol
mol of solute = 0.325 L x = 5.2 mol
1 L

30
Example 2:
How many grams of NaHCO3 are in 325 mL of 4.50 M
solution of NaHCO3?
1L
Vol. of solution = 325 mL x = 0.325 L
1000 mL

4.50 mol
mol of solute = 0.325 L x = 1.46 mol
1 L

84.0 g
mass of solute = 1.46 mol x = 123 g
1 mol
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Example 3:
What volume (mL) of 2.0 M NaOH solution contains
20.0 g of NaOH?

1 mol
mol of solute = 20.0 g x = 0.500 mol
40.0 g

1 L
Vol. In L = 0.500 mol x = 0.25 L
2.0 mol
1000 mL
Vol. In mL = 0.250 L x = 250 mL
1L
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Example 4:
How many mL of a 0.300 M glucose (C6H12O6) IV solution
is needed to deliver 10.0 g of glucose to the patient?

1 mol
mol of solute = 10.0 g x 180.1 g = 0.0555 mol

1 L
Vol. In L = 0.0555 mol x = 0.185 L
0.300 mol
1000 mL
Vol. In mL = 0.185 L x = 185 mL
1L
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 DILUTION
Amount of
 Solutions
When
Volume andmorearewater
oftenisprepared
solute
concentration added tofrom more
a solution,
are inversely proportional
concentrated remains
ones by adding water. This
Volume
constant
process is called dilution.
increases
Concentration
decreases

Frozen Water Diluted

juice juice
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 DILUTION

 The amount of solute depends on the

concentration and the volume of the solution.
Therefore,

M 1 x V1 = M 2 x V 2

Concentrated
solution Dilute
solution

35
Example 1:
What is the molarity of the final solution when 75 mL of
6.0 M KCl solution is diluted to 150 mL? Concentration
Volume decreases
M1 x V1 = M2 x V2
increases
M1 = 6.0 M
M1 V1 (6.0 M)(75 mL)
V1 = 75 mL M2 = =
V2 150 mL
M2 = ???
M2 = 3.0 M
V2 = 150 mL

36
Example 2:
What volume (mL) of 0.20 M HCl solution can be
prepared by diluting 50.0 mL of 1.0 M Volume
HCl?
Concentration increases
M1 x decreases
V1 = M2 x V2
M1 = 1.0 M
M1 V1 (1.0 M)(50.0 mL)
V1 = 50.0 mL V2 = =
M2 0.20 M
M2 = 0.20 M
V2 = 250 mL
V2 = ???

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Making a Solution by Dilution
M1 x V1 = M2 x V2
M1 = 12.0 M V1 = ? L
M2 = 1.50 M V2 = 5.00 L
M1  V1  M 2  V2
M 2  V2
V1 
M1

V1 
1.50 M   5.00 L 
 0.625 L
12.0 M 
dilute 0.625 L of 12.0 M solution to 5.00 L
 Solution Stoichiometry
• we know that the balanced chemical equation tells
us the relationship between moles of reactants and
products in a reaction
– 2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l) implies for every 2 moles of H2
used, you need 1 mole of O2 and to make 2 moles of H2O
• molarity is the relationship between moles of solute
and liters of solution, thus we can measure the
moles of a material in a reaction within a solution by
knowing its molarity and volume
Example 1:
•How much 0.115 M KI solution, in liters, is required to
completely precipitate all the Pb2+ in 0.104 L of 0.225 M
Pb(NO3)2?

2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → PbI2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)

Identify what the question is looking for:
volume of KI solution, L
0.115 M KI  0.115 mol KI  1 L solution

0.225 M Pb(NO3)2  0.225 mol Pb(NO3)2  1 L solution

Chem. Eq’n  2 mol KI  1 mol Pb(NO3)2
 0.225 mol Pb(NO 3 ) 2 2 mol KI 1 L KI sol' n
0.104 L Pb(NO 3 ) 2 sol' n   
1 L sol' n 1 mol Pb(NO 3 ) 2 0.115 mol KI

= 0.40696 L

= 0.407 L
 OSMOLARITY

 Recall
Many important
that when properties of solutions
ionic substances (strongdepend
on the number
electrolytes) of particles
dissolve formed
in water in solution.
they form several
particles for each formula unit.
 For example:

NaCl (s) Na+ (aq) + Cl (aq)

1 formula
2 particles
unit
42
 OSMOLARITY

CaCl2 (s) Ca2+ (aq) + 2 Cl (aq)

1 formula 3 particles
unit

43
 OSMOLARITY

 When covalent substances (non- or weak

electrolytes) dissolve in water they form only
one particle for each formula unit.
 For example:
C12H22O11 (s) C12H22O11 (aq)

1 formula
1 particle
unit
44
 OSMOLARITY

 Osmolarity of a solution is its molarity

multiplied by the number of particles formed in
solution.
Osmolarity = i x Molarity

Number of
particles in
solution
45
Examples:

0.10 M NaCl = 1 particle

2 x 0.10 M = 0.20in osmol
solution
0.10 M CaCl2 = 3 x 0.10 M = 0.30 osmol

0.10 M C12H22O112=particles
1 x 0.10 M = 0.10 osmol
3 particles
in solution
in solution
Same molarities but different osmolarities

46
 TONICITY OF
SOLUTIONS
 Because the cell membranes in biological systems
are semipermeable, particles of solute in solutions
can travel in and out of the membranes. This
process is called osmosis.
 The direction of the flow of solutions in or out of the
cell membranes is determined by the relative
osmolarity of the cell and the solution.
 The comparison of osmolarity of a solution with
those in body fluids determines the tonicity of a
solution.

47
 ISOTONIC
SOLUTIONS
 Solutions with the same osmolarity as the cells
(0.30) are called isotonic.
 These solutions are called physiological
solutions and allow red blood cells to
retain their normal volume.

48
 HYPOTONIC
SOLUTIONS
 Solutions with lower osmolarity than the cells are
called hypotonic.
 In these solutions, water flows into a
red blood cell, causing it to swell and
burst (hemolysis).

49
 HYPERTONIC
SOLUTIONS
 Solutions with greater osmolarity than the cells
are called hypertonic.
 In these solutions, water leaves the
red blood cells causing it to shrink
(crenation).

50
Examples:

0.10 M NaCl = 0.20 osmol hypotonic

0.10 M CaCl2 = 0.30 osmol isotonic

0.10 M C12H22O11 = 0.10 osmol hypotonic

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THE END

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