11.

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF
MATTER
 11. Thermal Properties of Matter
 Heat and Temperature
 Thermal expansion of solids
 Thermal expansion of liquids
 Thermal expansion of gases
 Anomalous expansion of water
 Specific heat capacity; Cp and Cv
 Change of state – Latent heat capacity
 Thermal conductivity
 Blackbody radiation
 Wien’s displacement Law
 Stefan’s law
 Greenhouse effect
Heat and Temperature
Conversion of temperature from one scale to another

• If the temperature of body is measured as TC ,

TF , TR and TK on Celsius, Fahrenheit, Reaumer
and Kelvin scales respectively, then
 Thermal Expansion of Solids

• All matter expand as their temperature increases.

• Solids and liquids expand slightly on heating but a gas
undergoes appreciable expansion on heating.
• The phenomenon of increase in the size of a body due to
heating is called thermal expansion.
• It is the consequence of change in the average separation
between its constituent atoms or molecules.
• Different types of thermal expansion of solids are:
(1) Linear expansion
(2) Superficial (Area) expansion
(3) Volume (Cubical) expansion
 1. Linear expansion

• It refers to increase in linear dimensions on heating a solid.

• Let L1 be the length of a solid rod at temperature T 10C on raising its
temperature to T20C, let its length becomes L2.
2. Superficial Expansion
3. Cubical Expansion
Relation between α,β and γ
Relation between α,β and γ …..
 Applications of thermal expansion
• (1) A small gap is left between the iron rails of railway tracks. The
two rails are joined by fish plates. If no gap is left between the rails, the
rails may bend due to expansion in summer and the train may get derailed.
• (2) Space is left between the girders used for supporting bridges.
This allows their expansion during summer. Moreover, the ends of the
girders are placed on metal rollers to allow the expansion and contraction to
take place easily with the change of season.
• (3) The iron ring to be put on the rim of a cart wheel is always of
slightly smaller diameter than that of the wheel.
• (4) Clock pendulums are made of invar. Invar is an alloy. It has
extremely small temperature coefficient of expansion. So the length of invar
pendulum does not change with the change of season and the clock gives
almost correct time.
• (5) A glass stopper jammed in the neck of a glass bottle can be
removed by warming the neck of the bottle.
 Thermal expansion of liquids
• Let us take a spherical glass bulb provided with a glass tube neck of uniform
cross section as shown.
• Let us fill the bulb with a liquid up to mark A in the neck.
• If the bulb is immersed into a bath of hot water, we observe that liquid level
first falls down to mark B and then rises gradually to mark C in the neck.
• It is evident from these observations that
expansion from: (i) A to B, i.e volume AB
measures the expansion of the vessel.
(ii) B to C, i.e volume CB measures the
real expansion of the liquid in the vessel and
(iii) A to C, i.e. volume AC measures
the apparent expansion of the liquid.
• From the fig. CB = CA + AB
Real expansion = Apparent expansion +
Expansion of the vessel.
Thermal expansion of liquids . . . .
• Coefficient of real expansion of the liquid,
γR = Real increase in volume /
(Initial volume x Rise in temperature)
• Coefficient of apparent expansion of the liquid,
γa = Apparent increase in volume /
(Initial volume x Rise in temperature).
• Hence, it can be shown that
γR = γa + γg
where γg is the coefficient of volume expansion of glass(vessel).
• Note: The coefficient of volume expansion of liquids is about 10
times greater than those of solids.
Thermal expansion of gases
• Gases expand more than the solids and liquids under
similar conditions.
• The coefficient of volume expansion for solids and liquids
are considered almost independent of the temperature.
• But in the case of gases, we need to mention the volume,
pressure and temperature to define the state of a gas.
• A change in any one of these variables, affect the other two
to a large extent.
• Hence, the coefficient of volume expansion (γ) of a gas
depends upon its temperature.
• In fact, γ decreases as T increases and vice-vesa.
 Anomalous expansion of water
• Almost all liquids expand on being heated but water behaves in a peculiar
manner.
• As the temperature increases from 00C to 40C, the density increases. It means
that the volume decreases, i.e. water contracts instead of expansion.
• Above 40C, the density decreases with rise in temperature. It means that above
40C, water expands with rise in temperature.
• This unusual behaviour of thermal expansion of water is called anomalous
expansion of water.
 Practical importance of anomalous expansion of water
• The anomalous expansion of water has a favourable effect on aquatic life.
• Since the density of water is maximum at 4 0C, water at the bottom of the
lakes remains at 4 0C even if it freezes at the top surface. This allows marine
animals to remain alive and move freely near the bottom.
• If water did not have this property, lakes and ponds would freeze from the
bottom up, which would destroy the entire aquatic animal and plant life.
Specific heat capacity or Specific heat
• The rise in temperature of a body depends on the quantity of heat
supplied, the mass of the body and the nature of the material of the body.
• Let an amount of heat(∆Q) when absorbed by a body of mass m, raises its
temperature by ∆T, then
∆Q = mS∆T
where S is a constant and called specific heat capacity or specific heat of
the material of the body and its value depends on the nature of the
material of the body.
• S = ∆Q / m∆T
• Specific heat of the material of a body is defined as the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of unit mass of the body through one
degree.
• The SI unit of specific heat is J kg-1 K-1.
• The CGS unit of S is cal g-1 0C-1.
• 1 cal = 4.18 J
 Molar specific heat or molar heat capacity
• Molar specific heat of a substance is defined as the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of the
substance through one degree.
• Molecular mass(M) of a substance is the mass per mole.
Mass of the substance having n moles
m = Mn
From ∆Q = mS∆T
= nMS∆T
∆Q = nC∆T
Here MS = C = molar specific heat
• The SI unit of molar specific heat is J mol-1 K-1.
Molar Specific heat of Gases
• Depending upon whether the volume or the pressure is kept
constant during heating of gas, the molar specific heat of a gas is
of two types:
(i) Molar specific heat at constant volume (C V)
(ii) Molar specific heat at constant pressure(C P)
• (i) CV : The molar specific heat of a gas at constant volume is
defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of one mole of a gas by one degree when its volume is kept
constant.
• (ii) CP : It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one mole of a gas by one degree when its
pressure is kept constant.
 Change of State
• The transition of a substance from one state to another by heating or cooling
is called change of state.
• The common changes of states are as follows:
(i) Solid to liquid: A substance in solid state converts into liquid state on
heating. The temperature at which it starts converting into liquid state called
the melting point and this process is called melting of solid.
(ii) Liquid to vapour: A substance in liquid state converts into its vapour
state on heating. The temperature at which it starts converting into vapour
state is called the boiling point and the process is called vaporisation.
(iii) Vapour to liquid: A substance in vapour state converts into its liquid
state by cooling. This process is converse of vaporisation and is called
condensation.
(iv) Liquid to solid: A substance in liquid state converts into its solid form
by cooling. This happens when the liquid attains a temperature called its
freezing point. This process is converse of melting and is called
fusion(freezing) of liquid.
Change of state …..
• Sublimation: The process of transition of a substance from the
solid state to the vapour state without passing through the liquid
state is called sublimation, and the substance is said to sublime.
• Ex: Dry ice(solid CO2), iodine, naphthalene and camphor.
• The phenomenon in which ice melts when pressure is increased
and again freezes when pressure is removed is called regelation.
• The melting point of solids which contract on melting(such as ice,
bismuth and cast iron), decreases with the increase in pressure.
• The melting point of the solid which expand on melting (such as
sulphur, paraffin wax and phosphorus), increases with the increase
in the pressure.
• Boiling point of a liquid increases with increase in pressure and vice
versa.
Latent heat(L)
• When a solid changes into liquid or a liquid changes into gas, it
absorbs heat. But this heat does not show up as an increase in
temperature. This heat, is used to change the state, is hidden or
latent and there fore called latent heat.
• The amount of heat required to change the state of unit mass of a
substance at constant temperature and pressure is called latent
heat of the substance.
• The heat(Q) required to change the state of mass m of a substance
is given by
Q = mL, where L is latent heat of the substance.
L=Q/m
• L is a characteristic of the substance and depends on the pressure.
• The SI unit of L is J kg-1.
• The cgs unit of L is cal g-1.
 Latent heat . . . .
• Latent heat of fusion(Lf) or melting: The amount of heat required to
convert unit mass of a substance from its solid into the liquid state.
Lf of ice = 80 cal g-1 or 3.3 x 105 J kg-1
• Latent heat of vaporisation (Lv) or boiling: The amount of heat required to
convert unit mass of a substance from its liquid into vapour state.
Lv of water = 540 cal g-1 or 2.26 x 106 J kg-1.
 Modes of transfer of heat
• Heat can be transferred from one place to another by three different methods.
• (i) Conduction:
It is a process in which heat is transferred from one part of a body to
another at a lower temperature through molecular collisions, without any
actual flow of matter.
• (ii) Convection:
It is the process by which heat flows from the region of higher temperature
to the region of lower temperature by the actual movement of the material
particles.
• (iii) Radiation:
It is the process by which heat is transmitted from one place to another
without heating the intervening medium.
Note: The state of a body when temperature of every cross-section of the body
becomes constant and there is no further absorption of heat in any part is
called steady state.
 Thermal Conductivity
• Consider a block of a material of cross-sectional area A and thickness x. Suppose
its opposite faces are at temperatures T1 and T2, with T1 > T2.
• The heat (Q) that flows from hot to cold
face during the steady state is directly
proportional to the cross-sectional
area(A), the temperature difference
(T1 – T2) between the opposite faces,
time t for which the heat flows and
inversely proportional to thickness x of the
block and depends on the nature of the material.
Q α A(T1 – T2)t / x
Q = KA(T1 – T2)t / x -------- (1)
• The proportionality constant K is called coefficient of thermal conductivity of the
given material.
• K depends on the nature of the material.
 Thermal conductivity . . . . .
• If the area of cross-section is not uniform or if the steady state
condition is not reached, then
H = dQ/dt = -KA(dT/dx) ----------(2)
• The quantity dT/dx is called the temperature gradient.
• ‘-’ Decrease in temperature along the positive x-direction.
• The coefficient of thermal conductivity(K) of a solid may be defined as
the rate of flow of heat per unit area per unit temperature gradient
across the two faces.
• The SI unit of K is Js-1m-1K-1 or Wm-1K-1
• The CGS unit of K is cal s-1cm-1 0C-1
• [K] = [MLT-3K-1]
• Solids are better conductors than liquids and liquids are better
conductors than gases.
• Metals are much better thermal conductors than the non-metals.
Applications of conductivity
• (i) In winter, a metallic handle appears colder than the
wooden door.
• (ii) Cooking utensils are provided with wooden handles.
• (iii) A new quilt is warmer than an old quilt.
• (iv) Birds swell their feathers in winter.
• (v) Ice is packed in saw dust.
• (vi) Eskimos make double wall house of the blocks of ice.
• (vii) When a wire gauge is placed over the burning
Bunsen’s burner, the flame does not go beyond the gauge.
• (viii) A refrigerator is provided with insulated walls.
 Blackbody
• Black body: A black body is an ideal system that absorbs thermal radiations of all
wavelengths incident on it.
• A perfect blackbody neither reflects nor transmits any radiation. Its absorptance is unity.
• As black body reflects no wavelength, it appears black, whatever be the colour of incident
radiation.
• When a blackbody is heated to a high temperature, it emits radiation of all possible
wavelengths. Hence the radiation emitted by a perfect black body is called full or total
radiation.
• Fig. shows Fery’s blackbody.
• The small opening of a heated
hollow cavity acts as a perfect
black body both for absorption
and emission of heat radiation.
• The wavelength range of emitted
radiation is independent of the
material of the body and depends
only on the temperature of the black body.
 Energy distribution for Blackbody Radiation
• Fig. shows the experimental curves drawn between the wavelength λ
and intensity of radiation Eλ(Energy per second per unit area) emitted
by a black body maintained at different constant temperatures.
• (i) At each temperature, a black body
emits continuous heat radiation spectrum.
The energy is not distributed equally
among all wavelengths.
• (ii) The energy associated with a radiation
of particular wavelength increases with
the increase in temperature.
• (iii) As wavelength increases, the energy
emitted increases, reaches a maximum for a particular wavelength
λm and then decreases.
 Wien’s displacement law

• (iv) It states that the wavelength(λm) ,corresponding to which

the energy emitted by a black body is maximum, is inversely
proportional to its absolute temperature(T). Mathematically,
λm α 1/T or λm T = b
where b is Wien’s constant = 2.9 x 10-3 mK
• Wien’s law can be used to estimate the surface temperatures
of the moon, sun and other stars.
(a) for moon, λm = 14μm and T = 200 K
(b) for sun, λm = 4753 A0, and T = 6060 K.
• When an iron piece is heated in a hot flame, its colour first
becomes dull red, then reddish yellow and finally white.
 Stefan-Boltzmann law
• (v) This law states that the total heat energy(E) emitted by a perfect black
body per second per unit area is directly proportional to the fourth power of
the absolute temperature of its surface.
Thus E α T4 or E = σ T4
where σ is a universal constant called Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
σ = 5.67 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4 (in SI)
= 5.67 x 10-5 erg s-1 cm-2 K-4 (in CGS)
• If the black body at temperature (T) is kept in the surrounding at temperature
T0 (<T), then the net energy radiated per second per unit area by the black
body is given by
E = σ (T4 - T04)
• If the body and its surrounding are not perfect and ε is their relative emissivity,
then
E = εσ(T4 - T04)
Note: Emissivity ε = E by a body / E by a perfect black body.
 Greenhouse effect
• The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth’s surface.
When the Sun’s energy reaches the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is reflected
back to space and the rest is absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases.
• Greenhouse gases include water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
oxide, ozone and some artificial chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
• The absorbed energy warms the atmosphere and the surface of the Earth.
This process maintains the Earth’s temperature at around 33 degrees Celsius
warmer allowing life on Earth to exist.
• The problem we now face is that human activities – particularly burning fossil
fuels (coal, oil and natural gas), agriculture and land clearing – are increasing
the concentrations of greenhouse gases. This is contributing to warming of the
Earth, which is called global warming.
• Due to global warming, ice caps are melting faster, sea level is rising and
weather pattern is changing.
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