Chapter 5.

Measuring Instruments (26 M)

Wheatstone Bridge Method
This is the simplest and the most basic bridge circuit used in measurement studies. It mainly
consists of four arms of resistance P, Q; R and S. R is the unknown resistance under experiment,
while S is a standard resistance. P and Q are known as the ratio arms. An EMF source is
connected between points a and b while a galvanometer is connected between points c and d.

A bridge circuit always works on the principle of null detection, i.e. we vary a parameter
until the detector shows zero and then use a mathematical relation to determine the
unknown in terms of varying parameter and other constants. Here also the standard
resistance, S is varied in order to obtain null deflection in the galvanometer. This null
deflection implies no current from point c to d, which implies that potential of point c and
d is same. Hence
Combining the above two equations we get the famous equation
 Megger
Definition: The Megger is the instrument uses for measuring the resistance of the insulation. It
works on the principle of comparison, i.e., the resistance of the insulation is compared with
the known value of resistance. If the resistance of the insulation is high, the pointer of the
moving coil deflects towards the infinity, and if it is low, then the pointer indicates zero
resistance. The accuracy of the Megger is high as compared to other instruments.

Construction of Megger

The construction of the Megger is shown in the figure below. The Megger has one current
coil and the two voltage coils V1 and V2. The voltage coil V1 is passed over the magnet
connected to the generator. When the pointer of the PMMC instrument deflects towards
infinity, it means that the voltage coil remains in the weak magnetic field and thus
experienced the very little torque.

Please Refer the link given bellow

https://youtu.be/W1T3hME0eDM
The torque experienced by the coil increases when it moves insides the strong
magnetic field. The coil experience the maximum torque under the pole faces and
the pointer set at the zero end of the resistance scale.

For improving the torque, the voltage coil V2 is used. The coil V2 is so allocated that
when the pointer deflects from infinity to zero coil moves into a stronger magnetic
field.

In Megger, the combined action of both the voltage coils V1 and V2 are considered.
The coil comprises a spring of variable stiffness. It is stiff near the zero end of the coil
and becomes very weak near the infinity end of the spring.

The spring compresses the low resistance portion and opens the high resistance of
the spring, which is the great advantage of the Megger because it is used for
measuring the insulation of the resistance which is usually very high.

The instrument has voltage selector switch which is used for selecting the voltage
range of the instrument. The voltage range is controlled by selecting the varying
resistance R connected in series with the current coil. The voltage is generated by
connecting the hand driven generator.
Working of Megger
The testing voltage is usually 500, 1000 or 2500 V which is generated by the hand
driven generator. The generator has centrifugal clutch due to which the generator
supplied the constant for the insulation test. The constant voltage is used for testing the
insulation having low resistance.

The Megger has three coils two pressure coils and one current coil. The pressure coil
rotates the moving coil in the anticlockwise direction, whereas the current coil rotates it
in the clockwise direction.

When the unknown resistance is connected in the circuit, the pointer of the moving coil
becomes stable. The pressure coil and the current coil balance the pointer and set it in
the middle of the scale.

The deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the voltage applied to the
external circuit. When the testing circuit is applied across the Megger, and if there is no
shorting throughout the insulation then the pointer deflects towards the infinity.  Which
shows that the resistance has high insulation.  For low resistance, the pointer moves
towards zero.
 Earth Tester
Definition: The instrument used for measuring the resistance of the earth is known as
earth tester. All the equipment of the power system is connected to the earth through
the earth electrode. The earth protects the equipment and personnel from the fault
current. The resistance of the earth is very low. The fault current through the earth
electrode passes to the earth. Thus, protects the system from damage.
The earth electrodes control the high potential of the equipment which is caused by the
high lightning surges and the voltage spikes. The neutral of the three-phase circuit is
also connected to the earth electrodes for their protection.

Before providing the earthing to the equipment, it is essential to determine the

resistance of that particular area from where the earthen pit can be dug. The earth
should have low resistance so that the fault current easily passes to the earth. The
resistance of the earth is determined by the help of earth tester instrument.

Construction of Earth Tester

The earth tester uses the hand driven generator. The rotational current reverser and
the rectifier are the two main parts of the earth tester. The current reverser and the
rectifier are mounted on the shaft of the DC generator. The earth tester works only on
the DC because of the rectifier.
The tester has two commutators place along with the current reverser and rectifier. The
each commutator consist four fixed brushes. The commutator is a device used for
converting the direction of flows of current. It is connected in series with the armature
of the generator. And the brushes are used for transferring the power from the
stationary parts to the moving parts of the devices.

The arrangement of the brushes can be done in such a way that they are alternately
connected with one of the segments even after the rotation of the commutator. The
brushes and the commutators are always connected to each other.

The earth tester consists two pressures and the current coils. The each coil has two
terminals. The pair of the pressure coil and the current coil are placed across the
permanent magnet. The one pair of current and pressure coil is short-circuited, and it
is connected to the auxiliary electrodes.

The one end terminal of the pressure coil is connected to the rectifier, and their other
end is connected to the earth electrode. Similarly, the current coil is connected to the
rectifier and earth electrode.
The earth tester consists the potential coil which is directly connected to the DC
generator. The potential coil is placed between the permanent magnet. The coil is
connected to the pointer, and the pointer is fixed on the calibrated scale. The pointer
indicates the magnitude of the earth resistance. The deflection of the pointer depends
on the ratio of the voltage of pressure coil to the current of the current coil.

The short-circuit current passes through the equipment to the earth is alternating in

nature. Thus, we can say that the alternating current flows in the soil. This
alternative current reduces the unwanted effect of the soil, which occurs because of
chemical action or because of the production of back emf.
 Multimeter
A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (volt-ohm-milliammeter), is an 
electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one
unit. A typical multimeter can measure voltage, current, and resistance. Analog
multimeters use a microammeter with a moving pointer to display readings. Digital
multimeters (DMM, DVOM) have a numeric display, and may also show a graphical
bar representing the measured value. Digital multimeters have rendered analog
multimeters obsolete, because they are now lower cost, higher precision, and more
physically robust.
A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service
work, or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy.
Multimeters are available in a wide range of features and prices.
Definition of Analog Multimeter

A type of multimeter that uses a needle on a scale to measure electrical quantities

like voltage, current, and resistance is known as an analog multimeter.

Basically whenever a quantity is measured by an analog multimeter then it displays

the result in analog form, using a pointer that shows a specific value of the scale.
The reading on the scale reflects the quantity to be measured.
Analog Multimeter
Definition of Digital Multimeter
A digital multimeter is another type of multimeter that uses a digital display to
represent the measured quantity in the form of digits.
After the invention of digital multimeters, the use of analog multimeters turned
somewhat limited since then. This is basically due to the advantageous factors
associated with digital multimeters.
The major component of digital multimeter is the display unit along with encoders,
analog to digital converters, signal conditioning circuits, etc.
A ​4 1⁄2-digit digital multimeter
Differences Between Analog and Digital Multimeter
1) Analog multimeters display the result in analog form thus it does not require analog
to digital converter. However, a digital converter specifically needs analog to digital
converter inside it.
2) The accuracy of analog multimeters are comparatively low in comparison to the
digital multimeter. As the digital multimeters generate more accurate results than
analog ones.
3) Analog multimeters are used for the measurement of quantities like voltage, current,
and resistance. While a digital multimeter along with these three measures impedance,
capacitance, etc. and sometimes used for testing purposes.
4) Analog multimeters are calibrated manually, however, automatic calibration is the
advantage of a digital multimeter.
5) Analog multimeters are quite difficult to use. Whereas digital multimeters provide
ease of measurement.
6) The presence of components like encoder, ADC, LCD, logic circuits, etc. makes the
circuit of a digital multimeter more complex than analog multimeters as these
components are not present in it.
 Differences Between Analog and Digital

1) Analog multimeters display the result in analog form thus it does not require needs
analog to digital converter inside it.
2) The accuracy of analog multimeters are comparatively low in comparison to the
digital multimeter. As the digital multimeters generate more accurate results than
analog ones.
3) Analog multimeters are used for the measurement of quantities like voltage, current,
and resistance. While a digital multimeter along with these three measures impedance,
capacitance, etc. and sometimes used for testing purposes.
4) Analog multimeters are calibrated manually, however, automatic calibration is the
advantage of a digital multimeter.
5) Analog multimeters are quite difficult to use. Whereas digital multimeters provide
ease of measurement.
6) The physical size of an analog multimeter is larger than that of a digital multimeter.
7) Analog multimeter shows less susceptibility towards electric noise during
measurement.
8) While digital multimeters are more susceptible to electric noise.
9) To represent reverse polarity, in analog meter, the pointer deflects towards left.
While in digital multimeter, the reverse polarity is indicated by a negative sign.
Parameter Analog Multimeter Digital Multimeter

Its display shows the measured The display of digital

Representation quantity by deflection of pointer multimeter represents the value
on scale. in the form of digits.

Need of ADC Does not exist Exist

Accuracy of
Low Comparitively high
measurement

Cost Low High

Physical size Large Comparitively small

Usability Difficult Quite easy

Calibration Manual Automatic

Input Variable i.e., changes with

Constant for all ranges.
resistance range.
 LCR Meter
Definition: LCR meters can be understood as a multimeter, this is because it can
measure resistance, inductance, capacitance as per the requirement. Thus, it is termed as
LCR meter. L in its name signifies inductance, C stands for capacitance and R denotes
resistance.

The significant component of LCR meter is the Wheatstone bridge and RC ratio arm

circuits. The component whose value is to be measured is connected in one of the arms of
the bridge. There are different provisions for the different type of measurements.
For example, if the value of resistance is to be measured, then Wheatstone bridge comes
into picture while the value of inductance and capacitance can be measured by comparing
it with standard capacitor present in RC ratio arm circuit.

Construction of Weston type frequency meter

As shown in bellow diagram there are two coils A1-A2 & B1-B2 divided into two
sections & perpendicular to each other.
In the circuit of coil A(A1-A2) there is series combination of resistance RA and
reactance LA in parallel with it. While in the circuit of coil B(B1-B2) there is series
combination of resistance RB and reactance LB in parallel with it. A series reactance
L
is used to suppress higher harmonics in the incoming currents of the instrument. At
the
center there is spindle on which magnetic niddle (soft-iron) is pivoted. The spindle
Diagram of Weston type frequency meter (ferromagnetic)
 Working of Weston type frequency meter:
 
When the instrument is connected across the supply, the current flows through both
coils A and B. The values of RA, RB, LA, LB are so chosen that for normal frequency
the voltage drop across LA and RB send the equal current in coil A and B , So the
fluxes act on needle is in such a way that it take center position showing normal
frequency 50Hz.
 
Now if the frequency is greater than 50Hz, reactance LA and LB increases , but RA,
RB unaffected, this gives more voltage drop across LA , hence more current in coil A,
less current in coil B. Ultimately pointer shows higher frequency.
 
Now if the frequency is lesser than 50Hz, reactance LA and LB decreases , but RA,
RB unaffected, this gives less voltage drop across LA , hence less current in coil A,
more current in coil B. Ultimately pointer shows lesser frequency.
Phase sequence indicator
There are two types of phase sequence indicators and they are:
(a) Rotating type (b) Static type.

a) Rotating type
It Consists of three star connected coils mounted 1200 apart in space with three ends brought
out and marked R-Y-B as shown in figure. An aluminum disc is mounted on the top of coils.
The coils produce rotating magnetic field, when three phase windings are energized by three
phase supply. Which sweeps the stationary aluminum disc and produces eddy emf induced in
the disc which circulates an eddy current in aluminum disc. Hence a torque is produced and
disc revolves, the
direction of rotation depends upon the phase sequence of the supply. If the direction of the
rotations is same as that indicated by arrow head, the phase sequence of the supply is same
as the marked on the terminals. However if the disc revolves in opposite direction indicated to
arrow head, the sequence of the supply is opposite to that marked on the terminals.
 b) Static
type.

Connect two lamps, lamp1 to R-phase, lamp2 to Y-phase and inductor to B-

phase as shown in the above figure. Resistors are connected in series with
the lamps for protecting the lamps from over currents and breakdown
voltages. If the sequence of supply is RYB, then the lamp 2 will glow
brighter than lamp 1; if the sequence of the supply is reversed or altered,
then the lamp 1 will glow brighter than the lamp
 Synchroscope
Necessity of synchroscope
 
Synchroscope is used for synchronization process. In a power system three phase
alternators, transformers are connected in parallel with system. When three phase
alternators are connecte to a infinite bus, the correct instant of synchronising is
important to connect that incomming alternator safely to existing system. Otherwise
there is local short circuit and damage to the system. So to detect the correct instant of
synchronizing, synchroscope is required
CRO ( Cathode Ray oscilloscope)
1. Vertical amplifier strengthens the input signal applied to
vertical depleting plates
2. Trigger circuit gives input to time base circuit.
3. The output of time base generator is amplified by
horizontal amplifier and then
applied to horizontal deflecting plates of CRT.
4. CRT consists of electron gun assembly which include
thermally heated cathode,
accelerating anode, focusing anode.
5. The electron beam coming out from electron gun
assembly enters to deflecting
plates.
6. The screen of CRT internally coated with Phosphors
material on which we observe waveform of the input signal.
Working of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
When the electron is injected through the electron gun, it passes through
the control grid. The control grid controls the intensity of electron in the
vacuum tube. If the control grid has high negative potential, then it
allows only a few electrons to pass through it. Thus, the dim spot is
produced on the lightning screen. If the negative potential on the control
grid is low, then the bright spot is produced. Hence the intensity of light
depends on the negative potential of the control grid.
After moving the control grid the electron beam passing through the
focusing and accelerating anodes. The accelerating anodes are at a high
positive potential and hence they converge the beam at a point on the
screen.
After moving from the accelerating anode, the beam comes under the
effect of the deflecting plates. When the deflecting plate is at zero
potential, the beam produces a spot at the centre.If the voltage is applied
to the vertical deflecting plate, the electron beam focuses at the upward
and when the voltage is applied horizontally the spot of light will be
deflected horizontally.
Draw a neat labeled diagram showing the controls
available on front panel of CRO
Cathode Ray Tube (CRO)
 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
Definition: The CRT is a display screen which produces images in the
form of the video signal. It is a type of vacuum tube which displays
images when the electron beam through electron guns are strikes on
the phosphorescent surface. In other Words, the CRT generates the
beams, accelerates it at high velocity and deflect it for creating the
images on the phosphorous screen so that the beam becomes visible.
The cathode ray tube is the vacuum tube which converts the
electrical signal into the visual signal. The cathode ray tube
mainly consists the electron gun and the electrostatic
deflection plates (vertical and horizontal).The electron gun
produces a focused beam of the electron which is accelerated
to high frequency.
The vertical deflection plate moves the beams up and down
and the horizontal beam moved the electrons beams left to
right. These movements are independent to each other and
hence the beam may be positioned anywhere on the screen.
 Working of CRT
The working of CRT depends on the movement of electrons
beams. The electron guns generate sharply focused electrons
which are accelerated at high voltage. This high-velocity
electron beam when strikes on the fluorescent screen creates
luminous spot.
After exiting from the electron gun, the beam passes through the
pairs of electrostatic deflection plate. These plates deflected the
beams when the voltage applied across it. The one pair of plate
moves the beam upward and the second pair of plate moves the
beam from one side to another. The horizontal and vertical
movement of the electron are independent of each other, and
hence the electron beam positioned anywhere on the screen.
The working parts of a CRT are enclosed in a vacuum glass
envelope so that the emitted electron can easily move freely
from one end of the tube to the other.
Describe with suitable example; frequency measurement by Lissajous
patterns on CRO.
Initially the unknown frequency signal is connected to vertical deflection
plates of CRO.
· Now switch of the internal sweep generator of the horizontal deflecting
system.
· A standard source of frequency is applied to the horizontal deflection
plates.
· The frequency of standard source is adjusted now until a circular or
elliptical pattern appears on CRT screen.
· When such pattern is observed on a screen, it indicates that two
frequencies are equal.
· Practically, it is not possible to adjust the standard frequency exactly
equal to unknown frequency. Hence the standard frequency is adjusted to
be a multiple or submultiple of unknown frequency.
Vertical input Frequency measurement by Lissajous patterns on CRO can
be explain by following example:
 Assume horizontal input frequency is 10 kHz for following
pattern

Fig: Lissajous patterns observed on CRO

Vertical input Frequency = 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑥 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠

= 3 x 10 𝑘𝐻𝑧
1
 
Vertical input Frequency = 30 kHz.
Block diagram of signal generator:
Working:
i) RF oscillator: The RF oscillator having LC tank circuit
produces carrier frequency.The sine wave voltages are with an
appreciable range of frequency and amplitudes. The frequency
of oscillation is selected for the range of frequency control and
the vernier dial selling on the front panel. The modulation is
indicated by a meter.
ii) Wide Band amplifier: The output signal can be AM
(Amplitude Modulated) or FM (Frequency Modulated).
Modulation can be done by sine wave, square wave or triangular
wave or by pulse. AM is provided by external source or by
internal sine wave generator. Modulation is done in output
amplifier circuit which delivers its output to an attenuator.
iii) Output attenuator: The attenuator facilitates selection of
proper range of attenuation and the output level is controlled.
The output voltage is observed on output meter
Block Diagram of Function Generator:
 
Working of Function Generator :
• This instrument can deliver sine, triangular & square waves
with frequency range of 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz.
• The frequency control network is governed by a frequency
dial on the front panel of the instrument
• The frequency control voltage regulates two current sources.
• The upper current source supplies a constant current to the
integrator whose output voltage increases with time.
• The voltage comparator multi-vibrator changes state at a
predetermined level on the positive slope of the integrator’s
output voltage.
• The lower current source supplies a reverse current to the
integrator so that its output voltage reaches a predetermined
level on the negative slope of the integrator’s output voltage.
 
 
 Digital frequency meter:

Amplifier:
The signal whose frequency is to be measured is first amplified and supplied to the
schmitt trigger.
Schmitt Trigger: The schmitt trigger convert the signal into square wave having fast rise and fall
time.The square wave is then differentiated and clipped. Each pulse is proportional to
each cycle of unknown signal
Start – Stop gate:
When the gate is open input pulses are allowed to pass through it.The counter is now start
counting the pulses.
When gate is closed input pulses are not allowed to pass through it.The counter is now stop
counting the pulses.
Counter and display:
The number of pulses during the period gate is open are counted by counter.If the
interval between start and stop condition is known the freuency of unknown signal is measured.
F = 𝑁/ 𝑡
Where, F = unknown frequency
N = No. count displayed on counter
t = time interval between start and stop condition of the gate
Draw the block diagram of tri-vector meter. State the various
measurements possible from tri-vector meter

Various measurements possible from tri-vector meter are:

Tri-vector meter is a measuring instrument which measures the kWh,
kVArh, the kVAh of a power line. Tri-vector meter is an energy meter
which accurately measures all the parameters of supply such as voltage,
current, power factor, active load, reactive load,
apparent load etc.
What is Trivector meter? Describe the constructional details of
Trivector meter?
Trivector meter is a measuring instrument which measures the active, reactive power
and total Energy consumed. They are normally used in substations to measure the
power flowing through the feeders and for billing the industrial consumers.

 
It is an electromechanical meter with gears and ratchet
coupling mechanism.
It consists of five gearing systems as:
Gearing system 1 : For watt hour meter
Gearing system 2 : For watt hour meter with p.f. 0.924 and
driven at reduced speed
Gearing system 3 : For watt hour meter with p.f. 0.707 and
driven at reduced speed
Gearing system 4 : For watt hour meter with p.f. 0.383 and
driven at reduced speed
Gearing system 5 : For reactive meter driven at normal speed.
Whenever power factor of the load changes, the driving
mechanism shifts to respective ratchet couplings and system
drives the mechanism.
The display unit is connected to common driving bar and the
respective numbers of KVAh are displayed on it.
THANKS