Unit V

Bipolar Junction Transistor

Bipolar Junction Transistor
W. Shockley, J. Barden, and W. Brattain invented the Transistor in 1947.
The term ‘transistor’ is derived from the words ‘transfer’ and ‘resistor.’
Transistor transfers the resistance from one end to the other.
Transistor has high resistance in the input section while low resistance in the
output section.
Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a bidirectional device that uses
both electrons and holes as charge carriers.
BJT is a current controlled device.
The current flows from emitter to collector or from collector to emitter
depending on the type of connection.
This main current is controlled by a very small current at the base terminal.
Constructions
A transistor is a three-layer semiconductor device in which one type of semiconductor
(either P-type or N-type) is sandwiched between two other similar types of semiconductors.
The three terminals of the BJT are the base, the collector, and the emitter.
Function of this type of transistor is to amplify current
A bipolar junction transistor is formed by three layers of semiconductor materials, if it is a
PNP transistor, it will have two P-type regions and one N-type region, likewise, if it is an
NPN transistor, it will have two N-type regions and one P-type region.
Emitter – The emitter terminal emits the charge carriers like holes or electrons to the
other two terminals. It heavily doped and moderate in size. The emitter is always
forward biased with respect to the base so that it supplies the majority charge carrier to
the base.
Collector – will collect the emitted charge carriers. It is
moderately doped, but larger in size. The collector-base junction
is always reverse biased. It collects the majority of the charge
carrier supplied by the emitter is called a collector.
Base – it is the center part among collector &
emitter terminals which forms two PN
junctions among them. The middle section.
It is lightly doped and very thin due to
which it offers the majority charge carrier to
the Collector.
The base forms two circuits, the input
circuit with the emitter and the output
circuit with the collector.
The EB is FB and offers low resistance to
the circuit.
The CB junction is in RB and offers higher
resistance to the circuit.
Base is the central part of the BJT will
allow it to manage the charge carriers flow
among emitter & collector terminals.
Working of NPN Transistor
EB Junction – FB CB Junction - RB
When Biasing voltage VBE is greater that barrier potential
many electrons enter into base region and form the IE.
These electrons can either flow through base circuit and constitute the
IB.
(or) they can also flow through the collector circuit and contribute
towards the IC.
The Base is thin and lightly doped, IB only 5% of IE.
Electrons injected from the emitter into the base diffuse into the CB
depletion region due to thin base region.
When the electrons enter into the CB depletion region, they are pushed
into the collector region by the electric field at the CB depletion region.
The IC flows through the external circuit. IC is about 95% of IB.
IE = I B + IC
 Operation of BJT
There are three operating regions of a bipolar junction transistor:
Active region: The region in which the transistors operate as an amplifier.
one junction is connected in a forward bias whereas the other one is connected in
reverse bias.
Ib is used to control the quantity of Ic IC = β × Ib
Saturation region: The transistors both the junctions are connected in forwarding bias.
So this region is mainly used for the ON-state for a switch IC = Isat

Cut-off region: both the transistor junctions are connected in reverse bias. Here this
transistor works like the off condition of a switch wherever IC = 0
Current Components of Transistors
PNP transistor with CB configuration
EB Junction – FB CB Junction - RB
The current arrives the BJT through the
emitter and this current is called IE.
This current consists
Hole current (IhE) and Electron current (IeE).
IeE is due to passage of electrons from B to E and
IhE is due to passage of holes from E to B IE = IhE+ IeE
-emitter is heavily doped as compared to base. So, the IeE is negligible compared to IhE. conclude that,
the whole emitter current in PNP transistor is mainly due to the flow of holes from emitter to base
All the holes crossing the emitter junction do not reach the collector junction because some of them
combine with electrons in N type base.
If IhC is the hole current at collector junction then the bulk recombination current leaving the
base lead is IB = IhE - IhC
Collector junction is RB, which acts as reverse biased PN
junction diode, a reverse saturation current ICO flows across
this junction. Total IC = IhC + ICO
ICO consists of holes crossing from base to collector
region and electrons crossing from collector to base
region in opposite direction.
ICO = IhCO + IeCO

In active region operation, due forward biased emitter junction,

IC = αIE + ICO
α is fraction of the total current IE which constitutes IhC
The total current entering into the transistor will be equal to the total current leaving the transistor
(according to Kirchhoff’s current law). IE = IB + IC
Common Base Connection
Definition: The configuration in which the base of the transistor is
common between emitter and collector circuit is called a common
base configuration.
CB connection, the input is connected between emitter and base
while the output is taken across collector and base.
The ratio of output current to input current is known as a current amplification factor.
Thus, the ratio of change in emitter current to the collector at constant V CBis known as a current amplification factor.

Where ΔIC is the change in the

collector and ΔIE is changed in The value of current amplification factor is less than
emitter current at constant VCB.
unity.
The value of the amplification factor (α) reaches to
Now,
unity when the base current reduces to zero.
The base current becomes zero only when it is thin
and lightly doped.
The practical value of the amplification factor varies
from 0.95 to 0.99 in the commercial transistor.
Collector Current
The base current is because of the recombination of the electrons and holes in the base region.
The whole emitter current will not flow through the current.
The IC increase slightly because of the leakage current flows due to the minority charge carrier.
The total collector current consists;
1.The large percentage of emitter current that reaches the collector terminal, i.e., αI E.
2.The leakage current Ileakage. The minority charge carrier is because of the flow of minority charge carrier
across the collector-base junction as the junction is heavily reversed. Its value is much smaller than αI E.
Total collector current,

The above expression shows that if IE = 0 (when the emitter circuit is open) then still a small current flow in the
collector circuit called leakage current. This leakage current is represented by as ICBO, i.e., collector-base current
with emitter circuit is open.

The leakage current is also abbreviated as ICO i.e., the collector current with emitter circuit open.
Common Base
Configuration
Common Base Configuration

Emitter is the input terminal, collector is

the output terminal and base terminal is
connected as a common terminal for
both input and output.
The input signal is applied between the
emitter and base terminals while the
corresponding output signal is taken across
the collector and base terminals.
The supply voltage between base and
emitter is denoted by VBE while the supply
voltage between collector and base is
denoted by VCB.
common base configuration, the base-
emitter junction JE is forward biased and
collector-base junction JC is reverse
biased.
Current flow in CB Configuration in NPN
EB junction JE is FB by the supply voltage VBE while the
CB junction JC is RB by the supply voltage VCB.
Due to the FB voltage VBE, free electrons start flowing from
emitter to base similarly holes start flowing from base to
emitter. Thus free electrons which are flowing from emitter
to base and holes which are flowing from base to emitter
conducts electric current.
The actual current is carried by free electrons which are
flowing from emitter to base. However, we follow
the conventional current direction which is from base to
emitter. Thus electric current is produced at the base
and emitter region
The free electrons which are flowing from emitter to base will combine with the holes in the base
region similarly the holes which are flowing from base to emitter will combine with the electrons
in the emitter region.
 Base region is very thin. Only a small
% of free electrons from emitter
region will combine with the holes in
the base region and the remaining
large number of free electrons cross
the base region and enters into the
A large region
collector number of free electrons
which entered into the collector
region will experience an attractive
force from the positive terminal of
the battery. Therefore, the free
electrons in the collector region will
flow towards the positive terminal
of the battery. Thus, electric
The electric
current current produced
is produced at the collector region is primarily due to the
in the collector
free electrons from the emitter region similarly the electric current produced
region.
at the base region is also primarily due to the free electrons from emitter
region.
The IEcollector
output = IB +current
IC is less than the input emitter current, so the current gain is
less than 1.
EB Junction at input side acts as a FB diode. So the CB amplifier has a low
input Z. the CB junction J at output side acts RB diode. It has high output Z.
Input characteristics
I/P characteristics describe the relationship between
input current (IE) and the input voltage (VBE) with
Constant output voltage (VCB)

When output voltage (VCB) is at zero volts and emitter-base

junction JE is forward biased by the input voltage (V BE), the
emitter-base junction acts like a normal p-n junction diode. So
the input characteristics are same as the forward
characteristics of a normal pn junction diode.
after 0.7 volts, a small increase in input voltage (V BE) will
rapidly increase the input current (IE).
When the output voltage (VCB) is increased from zero volts to a certain voltage level (8 volts), the
emitter current flow will be increased which in turn reduces the depletion region width at emitter-base
junction. As a result, the cut in voltage will be reduced. Therefore, the curves shifted towards the left
side for higher values of output voltage VCB.
Output characteristics
O/P characteristics describe the relationship
between O/P I (IC) and the O/P V (VCB). With
I/P Current is kept constant IE
When the emitter current IE is equal to 0 mA, the
transistor operates in the cut-off region
A curve is then drawn between output
current IC and output voltage VCB at
constant input current IE (1 mA). This
region is known as the active region of a
transistor.
For a constant input current IE, when the output
voltage VCB is increased, the output current IC remains
constant.
At saturation region, both emitter-base junction
JE and collector-base junction JC are forward biased
• Output characteristics are the relationship between output current
IC and output voltage VCB keeping input current IE constant. When
the input current IE is zero it is in cut off region. In saturation region
both emitter base junction and collector base junction are forward
biased.
• In active region IE is gradually increased and kept constant and output
voltage VCB is increased further and the output current IC almost
remains constant. So in active region curve is almost flat. Output
voltage causes only a very little change in output current.
Common Emitter Configuration

Two terminals are needed for input and two terminals for
output.
Transistors have three terminals, so one terminal have to be
taken as common terminal for both input and output.
CE configuration, emitter terminal is taken as common for
both input and output.
Input is given between base and the emitter terminals and
output is taken between collector and emitter terminals.
This is the most commonly used configuration.
Input voltage VBE is applied between base and
emitter terminals and output voltage VCE is
applied across emitter and collector.
The output current IC is taken at collector
terminals.
The input side is forward biased and the output
side is reverse biased.
Emitter base region acts like forward biased
diode and so the depletion region is very small.
Emitter collector region acts like reverse biased
diode and the depletion region is large.
The input current IB is measured in µA because
the base region is very lightly doped.
The input and output impedance are moderate in CE configuration and
thus the current and voltage gain is moderate and the power gain is
high. So this configuration is widely used for amplification.
 Relation Between Current Amplification
Base Current Amplification Factor (β) Factor (α) & Base Amplification Factor (β)
-defined as the ratio of the output
current and input current in a CE
configuration.
In CE amplification, the output
current is the collector current IC,
and the input current is the base
current IB. Substituting the value of ΔIE in equation
The ratio of change in collector
current with respect to base
current is known as the base
amplification factor. It is
represented by β (beta).

when the α reaches to unity, then the β reaches to

infinity.
The current gain in a CE configuration is very
high, and because of this reason, the CE
Collector Current
Substitute the value ΔIB in equations (1), we get
In CE configuration, the input
current IB and the output current IC
are related by the equation shown
below.

If the base current is open (i.e., IB = 0).

The collector current is current to the
emitter, and this current is abbreviated
as ICEO that means collector- emitter
current with the base open.
Input Characteristics First the O/P Voltage VCE is kept at zero and the
I/P voltage VBE is gradually increased and the
-relationship between the input current and the input input current IB is noted. Then again the output
voltage keeping output voltage constant.
voltage VCE is increased like 10V, 20V and kept
The curve plotted between IB and the VEB. For drawing the
constant and by increasing the input voltage
i/p characteristic the reading of base currents is taken
VBE, the input current IB is noted.
through the ammeter on emitter voltage VBE at constant
collector-emitter current.
The curve for CE configuration is similar to a forward diode
characteristic.
The IB increases with the increases in the VBE.
Thus the input resistance of the CE configuration is
comparatively higher that of CB configuration.
Input Resistance: The ratio of change in ∆VBE to the change
in ∆IB at constant VCE .

From the results it is observed that when the input voltage V BE is increased initially there is no current
produced, further when it is increased the input current I B increases steeply. When the output voltage VCE
is further increased the curve shifts right side.
Input Characteristics
Input voltage VBE is applied between base and
emitter terminals and output voltage V CE is
applied across emitter and collector.
The output current IC is taken across the emitter
and collector terminals.
The input side is forward biased and the output
side is reverse biased.
Emitter base region acts like forward biased diode
and so the depletion region is very small.
Emitter collector region acts like reverse biased
diode and the depletion region is large.
The input current IB is measured in µA because
the base region is very lightly doped.
The input and output impedance are moderate in common emitter configuration and thus the
current and voltage gain is moderate and the power gain is high. So this configuration is widely
used for amplification.
Output Characteristic
In CE configuration the curve draws between collector
current IC and collector-emitter voltage VCE at a constant
base current IB is called output characteristic.
Active region, the collector current
increases slightly as collector-emitter VCE
increases.
The slope of the curve is quite more than
the output characteristic of CB
configuration.
The output resistance of the CB connection
is more than that of CE connection.
The value of the collector current IC
increases with the increase in VCE at Output Resistance: The ratio of the
variation in collector-emitter voltage
constant voltage IB, the value β of also
to the collector-emitter current is
increases.
known at collector currents at a
When the VCE falls, the IC also decreases
constant base current IB is called
rapidly.
The collector-base junction of the transistor output resistance ro.
always in forward bias and work saturate.
1. Alpha α
The ratio of change in collector current to the change in emitter current at
constant collector base voltage VCB
is known as alpha (α).
α=△IC△IE
Practical values of α
in commercial transistors range from 0.9 to 0.99.
It is clear that the current amplification factor is less than unity. This value can
be increased (but not more than unity) by decreasing the base current. This is
achieved by making the base thin and doping it lightly.
2. Beta (β):
The ratio of change in collector current (△IC) to the change in base current △IB
Current gain β=△IC△IB
The value of (β) ranges from 20 to 500. The current gain indicates that input current
becomes β times in collector current.

3. Gamma (γ)
The ratio of change in emitter current △IE to the change in base current △IB is
known as Gamma (γ).
γ=△IE△IB
Γ value is slightly more than the value of β its voltage gain is always less than 1.
DC & AC Load Line of BJT, Stability,
Thermal Run away
Output Characteristics CE configuration transistor
Load Line

• The load line is drawn by joining the

saturation and cut off points. The region that
lies between these two is the linear region. A
transistor acts as a good amplifier in this
linear region.
• If this load line is drawn only when DC
biasing is given to the transistor, but no
input signal is applied, then such a load line is
called as DC load line.
• Whereas the load line drawn under the
conditions when an input signal along with the
DC voltages are applied, such a line is called
as an AC load line.
Transistor Load Line Analysis
(DC and AC Load Line and Q Point)
The concept of Transistor load line analysis is very
important in understanding the working of a transistor.
It is defined as the locus of operating point on the output
characteristic of the transistor.
It is the line on which the operating point moves when ac
signal is applied to the transistor.

DC Load Line:
VCC is the supply voltage to collector
Apply KVL to output RL - Load Resistor
VCE - Collector to Emitter Voltage
 Equation is to be plotted on the output characteristic of the CE
transistor, VCE and lC are variables.

By joining these two points A and B, dc load line is obtained.

DC load line represents the dynamic characteristic of the device.
DC dc load line provides the values of IC and VCE corresponding to zero signal
conditions.

Quiescent Point
It is a point on the DC load line, which represents the values of IC and VCE that exist in a transistor
circuit when no input signal is applied.
It is also called as DC operating point or working point
The best position for this point is midway between cut-off and saturation points where VCE = ½VCC
Significance of Q point:
The Q-point tends to shift its position due to following three main factors :
Reverse saturation current, ICO, which doubles for every 10°C increase in
temperature.
Base-emitter voltage, VBE, which decreases by 2.5 mV per °C.
Transistor current gain, β which increases with temperature.
AC Load Line:
When an ac signal is applied, the transistor voltage VCE and collector
current lC vary above and below the Q point .
So point Q is common to both DC & AC load lines
AC load line provides the values of VCE & IC when an AC signal is
applied.
For drawing ac load line, take a convenient IC change ΔIC and
compute the corresponding collector-emitter voltage change ΔV CE = -
ΔIC × RC to obtain another point lying on the ac load line.
Now the ac load can be drawn by joining this point and point Q.
AC load is steeper than DC load line but the two lines intersect at the
quiescent point Q determined by the biasing dc voltages and currents.
AC and DC Load Line
• When AC and DC Load lines are represented
in a graph, it can be understood that they are
not identical.
• Both lines intersect at the Q-point or
quiescent point.
• The endpoints of AC load line are saturation
and cut off points.
• From figure, it is understood that the
quiescent point (the dark dot) is obtained
when the value of base current IB is 10mA.
• This is the point where both the AC and DC
load lines intersect.
Thermal runaway
The collector current of the common emitter transistor is given by
IC = βIB + ICEO IC = βIB + ( 1 + β ) ICBO (1 )
Where : IC = Collector current ; IB = Base current ; β = Current amplification factor in CE
configuration
ICEO = Collector to emitter current with base open
ICBO = Collector to base current with emitter open (collector leakage current)
The ICBO depends upon temperature and it produces heat in the transistor.
This will result in ICBO further increases.
As the collector leakage current ICBO increases, the collector current also increases [ From eqn. 1].
The increase in collector current further increases temperature and this process cumulative result
collector current increases such an extent that it may burn out transistor.
The self-destruction or burn out of transistor due to rise in temperature is called as
thermal runaway.
Stability Factor
Stability factor : The rate of change of collector current I C with respect to the collector leakage
current ICO at constant β and IB is called Stability factor.

From the equation any change in collector leakage current changes the collector current to a
great extent. The stability factor should be as low as possible so that the collector current doesn’t
get affected. S=1 is the ideal value

General expression of stability factor for a CE configuration IC = βIB + ( 1 + β ) ICBO

Differentiate w.r.t IC