Lecture 2

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In this topic we’ll learn

LED with their applications


Basic theory of BJT
Different models of BJT
BJT as an amplifier
Introduction to FET
LIGHT EMMITING DIODES (LED)

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a diode that gives off visible light when
forward biased
The free electrons are in the conduction band and at a higher energy level than the
holes in the valence band.

When recombination takes place, the recombining electrons release energy in the
form of heat and light.

In germanium and silicon diodes, almost the entire energy is given up in the form of
heat and emitted light is insignificant.

However, in materials like gallium arsenide, the number of photons of light energy is
sufficient to produce quite intense visible light.

Although LEDs are available in several colours (red, green, yellow and orange are
the most common), the schematic symbol is the same for all LEDs.
Advantages of LED:
• Low voltage
• Longer life (more than 20 years)
• Fast on-off switching

Applications of LED:
The two most common applications for visible LEDs are
(i) as a power indicator
(ii) seven-segment display.
Circuit for power indication Schematic for 7 segment display

The anodes of all seven LEDs are connected to a common positive voltage source of
+5 V. This arrangement is known as common-anode type.

In order to light a particular LED, say A, we ground the point A. It forward biases the
LED A which will be lit.
I-V Characteristics
Photodiode
A photo-diode is a reverse-biased silicon or germanium pn-junction in which reverse
current increases when the junction is exposed to light.

The reverse current in a photo-diode is directly proportional to the intensity of light


falling on its pn junction.

This means that greater the intensity of light falling on the pn junction of photo-
diode, the greater will be the reverse current.
Principle
A photo-diode differs from a rectifier diode in that when its pn junction is exposed
to light, the reverse current increases with the increase in light intensity and vice-
versa. This is explained as follows.

When light (photons) falls on the pn junction, the energy is imparted by


the photons to the atoms in the junction.

This will create more free electrons (and more holes). These additional free
electrons will increase the reverse current.

As the intensity of light incident on the pn junction increases, the reverse current
also increases.

In other words, as the incident light intensity increases, the resistance of the device
(photo-diode) decreases.
(i) Reverse current-Illumination curve.

Fig. i shows the graph between reverse current (IR) and illumination (E) of a
photo-diode.
The reverse current is shown on the vertical axis and is measured in μA.
The illumination is indicated on the horizontal axis and is measured in
mW/cm2.

Fig. i
(ii) Reverse voltage-Reverse current curve.

Fig. (ii) shows the graph between reverse current (IR) and reverse voltage (VR)
for various illumination levels. It is clear that for a given reverse-biased voltage
VR, the reverse current IR increases as the illumination (E) on the pn junction
of photo-diode is increased.

Fig. (ii)

The lumen is the unit of luminous flux, a measure of the total


quantity of visible light emitted by a source per unit of time
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
A transistor consists of two pn junctions formed by sandwiching either p-type or n-
type semiconductor between a pair of opposite types.

Accordingly ; there are two types of transistors, namely;


(i) n-p-n transistor (ii) p-n-p transistor

An n-p-n transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated by a thin


section of p-type as shown Fig. (i).

However, a p-n-p transistor is formed by two p-sections separated by a thin section


of n-type as shown in Fig. (ii).
A transistor (pnp or npn) has three sections of doped
semiconductors.

The section on one side is the emitter and the section on the
opposite side is the collector. The middle section is called the base
and forms two junctions between the emitter and collector.

Therefore, a transistor transfers a signal from a low resistance to high resistance.


The prefix ‘trans’ means the signal transfer property of the device while ‘istor’
classifies it as a solid element in the same general family with resistors.
The section on one side that supplies charge carriers (electrons or holes) is called the
emitter. The emitter is always forward biased w.r.t. base so that it can supply a large
number of majority carriers.

The section on the other side that collects the charges is called the collector. The
collector is always reverse biased. Its function is to remove charges from its junction
with the base.
The middle section which forms two pn-junctions between the emitter and
collector is called the base.

The base-emitter junction is forward biased, allowing low resistance for the
emitter circuit. The base-collector junction is reverse biased and provides high
resistance in the collector circuit.

The base is much thinner than the emitter while collector is wider than both.
However, for the sake of convenience, it is customary to show emitter and
collector to be of equal size.

The emitter is heavily doped so that it can inject a large number of charge
carriers (electrons or holes) into the base. The base is lightly doped and very
thin; it passes most of the emitter injected charge carriers to the collector. The
collector is moderately doped.
Working of npn transistor. Fig. shows the npn transistor with forward bias to
emitter-base junction and reverse bias to collector-base junction.

The forward bias causes the electrons in the n-type emitter to flow towards the
base. This constitutes the emitter current IE. As these electrons flow through the p-
type base, they tend to combine with holes.

As the base is lightly doped and very thin, therefore, only a few electrons (less than
5%) combine with holes to constitute base current IB. The remainder cross over into
the collector region to constitute collector current IC.

In this way, almost the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit. It is clear
that emitter current is the sum of collector and base currents i.e.
IE = IB + IC
Basic connection for npn transistor
Basic connection for pnp transistor
Suppose collector load resistance RC = 5 kΩ.
Let us further assume that a
change of 0.1V in signal voltage produces
a change of 1 mA in emitter current.

Obviously, the change in collector


current would also be approximately 1 mA.

This collector current flowing through


collector load RC would produce a
voltage = 5 kΩ × 1 mA = 5 V.

Thus, a change of 0.1 V in the signal has caused a change of 5 V in the output circuit.
In other words, the transistor has been able to raise the voltage level of the signal from
0.1 V to 5 V i.e. voltage amplification is 50.
TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS

Common Base

Common Emitter

Common Collector
COMMON BASE CONNECTION

The ratio of change in collector current to the change in emitter current at


constant collector-base voltage VCB is known as current amplification factor
i.e.

If only d.c. values are considered, then α = IC /IE


It is clear that current amplification factor is less than unity.

This value can be increased (but not more than unity) by decreasing the base current.
This is achieved by making the base thin and doping it lightly.

Practical values of α in commercial transistors range from 0.9 to 0.99.

The total collector current consists of :

(i) That part of emitter current which reaches the collector terminal i.e. α IE.

(ii) The leakage current Ileakage. This current is due to the movement of minority
carriers across base-collector junction on account of it being reverse biased. This is
generally much smaller than α IE.
It is clear that if IE = 0 (i.e., emitter circuit is open), a small leakage current still
flows in the collector circuit.

This Ileakage is abbreviated as ICBO, meaning collector-base current with emitter


open. The ICBO is indicated in Fig.
Characteristics of Common Base Connection
Input characteristic. It is the curve between emitter current IE and emitter-base voltage
VEB at constant collector-base voltage VCB. The emitter current is generally taken along
y-axis and emitter-base voltage along x-axis.

(i) The emitter current IE increases rapidly with small increase in emitter-base voltage
VEB. It means that input resistance is very small.

(ii) The emitter current is almost independent of collector-base voltage VCB. This
leads to the conclusion that emitter current (and hence collector current) is almost
independent of collector voltage.

Input resistance. It is the ratio of change in emitter-base voltage (ΔVEB) to the resulting
change in emitter current (ΔIE) at constant collector-base voltage (VCB)
It is the curve between collector current IC and collector-base voltage VCB at
constant emitter current IE.

(i) The collector current IC varies with VCB only at very low voltages ( < 1V).
The transistor is never operated in this region.

(ii) When the value of VCB is raised above 1 − 2 V, the collector current becomes
constant as indicated by straight horizontal curves. It means that now IC is
independent of VCB and depends upon IE only. This is consistent with the
theory that the emitter current flows almost entirely to the collector terminal.
The transistor is always operated in this region.

(iii) A very large change in collector-base voltage produces only a tiny change in
collector current.
This means that output resistance is very high.
Ex. For the common base circuit shown in Fig., determine IC and VCB. Assume the
transistor to be of silicon.

Since the transistor is of silicon, VBE = 0.7V. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage


law to the emitter-side loop, we get
Common Emitter Connection

In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between base and emitter and
output is taken from the collector and emitter.

Here, emitter of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits
and hence the name common emitter connection.
1. Base current amplification factor ( β). In common emitter connection, input
current is IB and output current is IC.

The ratio of change in collector current (ΔIC) to the change in base current (ΔIB)
is known as base current amplification factor i.e.

In almost any transistor, less than 5% of emitter current flows as the base current.
Therefore, the value of β is generally greater than 20.

Usually, its value ranges from 20 to 500. This type of connection is frequently used
as it gives appreciable current gain as well as voltage gain.
It is clear that as α approaches unity, β approaches infinity.

In other words, the current gain in common emitter connection is very high.

It is due to this reason that this circuit arrangement is used in about 90 to 95


percent of all transistor applications.
When the base voltage is applied as shown in Fig. (ii), then the various
currents are :
Characteristics of Common Emitter Connection
Input characteristic: It is the curve between base current IB and base-emitter voltage VBE at
a constant collector-emitter voltage VCE.

The following points may be


noted from the characteristics :

(i) The characteristic resembles that of a forward


biased diode curve. (since the
base-emitter section is forward biased)

(ii) As compared to CB arrangement, IB


increases less rapidly with VBE. Therefore, input
resistance of a CE circuit is higher than that of CB
circuit.
Input resistance. It is the ratio of change in
base-emitter voltage (ΔVBE) to the change in base
current (ΔIB) at constant VCE i.e.
Output characteristic. It is the curve between collector current IC and collector-
emitter voltage VCE at constant base current IB.
The following points may be noted from the characteristics:
(i) The collector current IC varies with VCE for VCE between 0 and
1V only. After this, collector current becomes almost constant
and independent of VCE.

This value of VCE upto which collector current IC changes with


VCE is called the knee voltage (Vknee). The transistors are always
operated in the region above knee voltage.

(ii) Above knee voltage, IC is almost constant. However, a small increase in IC with increasing
VCE is caused by the collector depletion layer getting wider and capturing a few more
majority carriers before electron-hole combinations occur in the base area.
(iii) For any value of VCE above knee voltage, the collector current IC is approximately equal
to β × IB.
A transistor is connected in common emitter (CE)
configuration in which collector supply is 8V and the
voltage drop across resistance RC connected in the
collector circuit is 0.5V. The value of RC = 800 Ω.
If α = 0.96, determine :
(i) collector-emitter voltage
(ii) base current
Common Collector Connection

In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between base and collector while output
is taken between the emitter and collector.
(i) Current amplification factor γ. In common collector circuit, input current is the
base current IB and output current is the emitter current IE. Therefore, current
amplification in this circuit arrangement can be defined as under :

The ratio of change in emitter current (ΔIE) to the change in base current (ΔIB) is
known as current amplification factor in common collector (CC) arrangement i.e.

Relation between γ and α


(iii) Applications. The common collector circuit has very high input resistance (about 750
kΩ) and very low output resistance (about 25 Ω). Due to this reason, the voltage gain
provided by this circuit is always less than 1. Therefore, this circuit arrangement is seldom
used for amplification.
However, due to relatively high input resistance and low output resistance, this circuit is
primarily used for impedance matching i.e. for driving a low impedance load from a high
impedance source.
Comparison of Transistor Connections
Transistor Load Line Analysis

Consider a common emitter npn transistor circuit shown in Fig. where no signal is
applied. Therefore, d.c. conditions prevail in the circuit. The output characteristics of
this circuit are shown in Fig.
The value of collector-emitter voltage VCE at any time
is given by

VCE = VCC – IC RC
Importance. The current (IC) and voltage (VCE) conditions in the transistor circuit are
represented by some point on the output characteristics.

The same information can be obtained from the load line. Thus when IC is maximum
(= VCC /RC), then VCE = 0 as shown in Fig. above. If IC = 0, then VCE is maximum and is
equal to VCC. For any other value of collector current say OC, the collector-emitter
voltage VCE = OD.
Operating Point

The zero signal values of IC and VCE are known as the operating point. It is called
operating point because the variations of IC and VCE take place about this point
when signal is applied.

It is also called quiescent (silent) point or Q-point because it is the point on IC −


VCE characteristic when the transistor is silent i.e. in the absence of the signal.
For the circuit shown in Fig. below, draw the d.c. load line.
In the circuit diagram shown in Fig. below, if VCC = 12V and RC = 6 kΩ, draw
the d.c. load line. What will be the Q point if zero signal base current is 20μA and β = 50 ?

The zero signal VCE is given by VCE = VCC – IC RC


= 12- (1x6) = 6 V.
Determine the Q point of the transistor circuit shown in Fig. below. Also draw
the d.c. load line. Given β = 200 and VBE = 0.7V.
Determine the Q point of the transistor circuit shown in Fig. below. Also draw
the d.c. load line. Given β = 100 and VBE = 0.7V.
Cut off and Saturation Points

(i) Cut off: The point where the load line intersects the IB = 0 curve is known
as cut off. Both of the transistor junctions remains reverse biased.

(ii) Saturation: The point where the load line intersects the IB = IB(sat) curve is
called saturation. Both of the transistor junctions remains forward biased
TRANSISTOR BIASING
The process of raising the strength of a weak signal without any change in its
general shape is known as faithful amplification.

To ensure this, the following basic conditions must be satisfied :

(i) Proper zero signal collector current


(ii) Minimum proper base-emitter voltage (VBE) at any instant
(iii) Minimum proper collector-emitter voltage (VCE) at any instant
Now, introduce a battery source VBB in the base circuit as shown in Fig. (ii). The
magnitude of this voltage should be such that it keeps the input circuit forward biased
even during the peak of negative half-cycle of the signal. When no signal is applied, a d.c.
current IC will flow in the collector circuit due to VBB as shown. This is known as zero
signal collector current IC.
Stabilization

The collector current in a transistor changes rapidly when


(i) the temperature changes,
(ii) the transistor is replaced by another of the same type. This is due to the inherent
variations of transistor parameters.

Need for stabilization. Stabilization of the operating point is necessary due to the
following reasons :
(i) Temperature dependence of IC
(ii) Individual variations
(iii) Thermal runaway
Methods of Transistor Biasing
(i) Base resistor method
(ii) Emitter bias method
(iii) Biasing with collector-feedback resistor
(iv) Voltage-divider bias
(i) (ii)
(iii) (iv)
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR
The ordinary or bipolar transistor has two principal disadvantages.

• First, it has a low input impedance because of forward biased emitter junction.
• Secondly, it has considerable noise level.

• Although low input impedance problem may be improved by careful design


and use of more than one transistor, yet it is difficult to achieve input
impedance more than a few megaohms.

• The field effect transistor (FET) has, by virtue of its construction and biasing,
large input impedance which may be more than 100 megaohms.

• The FET is generally much less noisy than the ordinary or bipolar transistor.
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a current controlled device i.e., output
characteristics of the device are controlled by base current and not by base
voltage.

However, in a field effect transistor (FET), the output characteristics are controlled
by input voltage (i.e., electric field) and not by input current.

There are two types of FET:


(i) Junction field effect transistor (JFET)
(ii) Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET)
A JFET consists of a p-type or n-type silicon bar containing two pn
junctions at the sides as shown in Fig.

The bar forms the conducting channel for the charge carriers.
If the bar is of n-type, it is called n-channel JFET as shown in Fig.
and if the bar is of p-type, it is called a p-channel JFET.

The two pn junctions forming diodes are connected internally and


a common terminal called gate is taken out.

Other terminals are source and drain taken out from the bar as
shown. Thus a JFET has essentially three terminals viz., gate (G),
source (S) and drain (D).
Biasing of JFET transistor
Principle. The two pn junctions at the sides form two depletion layers. The
current conduction by charge carriers (i.e. free electrons in this case) is
through the channel between the two depletion layers and out of the drain.
The width and hence resistance of this channel can be controlled by changing the
input voltage VGS.

The greater the reverse voltage VGS, the wider will be the depletion layers and
narrower will be the conducting channel.

The narrower channel means greater resistance and hence source to drain current
decreases. Reverse will happen should VGS decrease.

Thus JFET operates on the principle that width and hence resistance of the
conducting channel can be varied by changing the reverse voltage VGS
Difference Between JFET and Bipolar Transistor

Unipolar transistor

High Input impedance

When Ig = 0, the current is nearly zero (1000 times less than current in
BJT)

JFET gain is characterized as a transconductance i.e., the ratio of


change in output current (drain current) to the input (gate) voltage.

No junction device
Output Characteristics of JFET
The following points may be noted from the characteristics :
(i) At first, the drain current ID rises rapidly with drain-source voltage VDS but then
becomes constant.

(ii) The drain-source voltage above which drain current becomes constant is known as
pinch off voltage.
(iii) Thus in Fig., OA is the pinch off voltage VP.

(iv) After pinch off voltage, the channel width becomes so narrow that depletion layers
almost touch each other.
(v)The drain current passes through the small passage between these layers.
Therefore, increase in drain current is very small with VDS above pinch off voltage.

(vi) Consequently, drain current remains constant.


Important Terms
In the analysis of a JFET circuit, the following important terms are often used :

1. Shorted-gate drain current (IDSS)


2. Pinch off voltage (VP)
3. Gate-source cut off voltage [VGS (off)]
Shorted-gate drain current (IDSS). It is the drain current with source
short-circuited to gate (i.e. VGS = 0) and drain voltage (VDS) equal to pinch
off voltage. It is sometimes called zero-bias current.
2. Pinch off Voltage (VP). It is the minimum drain-source voltage at which the
drain current essentially becomes constant.

3. Gate-source cut off voltage VGS (off). It is the gate-source voltage where the
channel is completely cut off and the drain current becomes zero.
A JFET has a drain current of 5 mA. If IDSS = 10 mA and VGS (off) = – 6 V, find
the value of (i) VGS and (ii) VP.

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