Introduction to Religions, Religious

Experiences and Spirituality

College of Arts an Letters

Department of Humanities and Philosophy
Sta. Mesa, Manila
Overview

• Religion is a vital part of human life.

• It is one tool used in answering most of our existential questions -
about life, about existence.
• However, despite our everyday encounter with religion, it is still
often misunderstood.
• Therefore, this lesson will give us an idea of how religion, together
with all the complicated terms surrounding it, can and must be
understood.
 Introduction

• From the beginning of human civilization, religion has always been a vital
component of the human condition.
• It gave us a system of orientation on what we should live for or die for.
• Our constant pursuit of religion is a search for an answer to our existential and
spiritual burdens.
• Thus, religion functions as an anchor at the core of humanity’s existence. Most of
the time, it is religion that provides meaning and sense to our daily existence.
• Humans, as journeying beings – homo viator – always seeks to find something – or
Someone – greater than themselves.
• Hence, we give in to a specific religion that fulfills our search for certainty that
determines the course of our lives. God made us, and we made religion in order
to help us in our quest for answers.
• Perhaps, when you were younger, you tend to ask your parents or yourself
the questions “where did everything come from?”, or, “who created us?”.
• These questions only go to show that even at a very young age, we
acknowledge the fact that we are not independent beings who can exist
without a creator.
• Logical thinking would always bring us to a concept of a maker, which we
often identify as God.
• This is the very reason why human civilization has established countless
religions over the course of thousands of years.
• As a matter of fact, a German philosopher named Erich Fromm argued that
religion is an expression of our basic human needs, and all cultures will
always have it.
• We can never get away from this because it is an inevitable truth of our
existence.
• Looking at the world’s history, it is difficult to not notice how religions have
affected our present lives, whether in a good or a bad way.
• There even came a point in the western narrative where religion became
the end-all and be-all of everything; what was considered as true was what
the religious teachings prescribed.
• A concrete example of this is the belief during the Medieval period that if
you contradict the teachings of the Catholic Church, you are considered a
heretic.
• However, today, religion as an institution seems to be caught in a kind of
stalemate.
• In this age of religious extremism, environmental exploitation, racial
discrimination, and family disintegration, religion most often gets the
blame.
• Admittedly, religion has been a real factor in shaping conflicts in world
history – and it continues to be.
• Religion plays a central role in world conflict. Some claim religion to have
hampered a nation’s growth, that religion is a roadblock to progress.
• Religious doctrines, beliefs, and practices cause grave misunderstanding
among cultures and nations.
• But this is only brought by the misconception that one religion should be
above the other.
• Religion is so beautifully woven into society that it addresses questions
that we, as humans, cannot find an immediate answer to.
• Religion is simply misunderstood today.
• To talk, therefore, about religion is deemed of utmost importance –
religion yesterday, religion today, and religion tomorrow.
• This course should be able to make you realize that religion, when
properly understood, can be the solution to the problems it has itself
caused.
• Aside from religions and their respective traditions, this course should also be
able to elucidate on religious experience.
• The notion of “religious experience” that will be discussed in this subject is less
of the mystical side of religious experience and more of the day-to-day
religious experience, or the day-to-day experience of God in ordinary life.
• With this approach, we must go back to our raw experience, to see everything
as manifestations of something greater than ourselves.
• The religious experience should be a day to day experience.
• The goal is to experience God on a daily basis.
• The way one experiences God, even in the most ordinary things, can never be
discounted.
• Spirituality is treated almost in the same way.
• We will talk about spirituality not in the strict, monastic sense but
more on the simple way of life of the ordinary believer.
• The discussion dwells mostly on the ideals which believers follow
in order to live a good life, in accordance with the teachings of
their religion.
• Spirituality here is treated as a path with different signposts,
stopovers, and layovers, but still leads to the same, single
destination.
• This subject does not aim to expose various religions in order to be
subjected to comparison – after all, no religion is better than the
other – but to see each religious tradition as it is and find
similarities with other religious traditions.
• This way, we may be able to find that which is greater than
ourselves, regardless of our religion.
• Religions, religious experience, and spirituality must be understood with care.
• A single misstep can lead the believer, the family, and the society in the wrong
direction.
• But with influence both on the personal and the societal level, religion, when
properly understood, must transform the believer and, eventually, move
society forward.
• In every religion is an element of transcendence, and a vision of searching for
the deepest values of humanity that can only be found through an authentic
connection with the destination, the Supreme Being – God.
Religion

• There is much controversy and little clarity as to the etymology of the word
“religion”, and this topic has been debated since.
• One such perspective was presented by the philosopher Cicero who proposed
the Latin relegere, which roughly means “to read or go through again in
speech or thought”.
• On the other hand, the most commonly accepted etymology is the Latin
religare, which means “to bind”. However, Cicero and other early
etymologists all share in the idea that religion is a system which binds a
human person to a social, moral, and legal duty or contract and compels that
same person to follow or avoid particular courses of actions.
• The said definitions of religion only provide us
with its nominal meaning, but do not give us a
full and real understanding of the concept.
• In other words, they only explain the word
“religion” but never made us understand what
the concept really means.
• Maybe, that is the funny thing about religion – we
keep trying to give it some definition, but it still,
up to this day, remains as a mystery waiting to be
discovered.
• As a matter of fact, numerous scholars,
philosophers, sociologists, theologians, etc., have
attempted to explain what religion is.
• For example, the German idealist Immanuel Kant said that
“religion is the recognition of all our duties as divine commands.”
• For Kant, religion is never separated from ethics as a way of life.
• Also, Emile Durkheim, a French sociologist, described religion from
a sociological perspective. He defined religion as, “a set of
ceremonial actions, assembling the group, heightening its
emotion, and focusing its member on symbols of their common
belongingness.”
• Further, Karl Marx would say that religion is the “opium of the
masses”. According to him, religion, just like opium, clouds the
mind of the people in order to not recognize the oppressions
existing in society.
• These are only some of the definitions of religion and there are
thousands more out there.
• To know the meaning of religion, it must first be lived,
explored, and experienced.
• In this way, we might be able to create a fuller understanding
of religion.
• Alluding to the ideas of William James, we must first
acknowledge the fact that in our journey in knowing religion, it
is very likely that we might not find a single essence or
explanation.
• However, that does not mean that the journey is not worth
taking, because every meaning we find is equally important.
• It will take an open mind to understand religion.
Fundamental Features of Religion
1. Cosmological Dimension

• Religion is an avenue to answer big questions about our

existence.
• It provides explanations about our faith, the universe,
creation, nature, meaning, and form of the universe and
the place of humanity in it.
• Religion tries to put meaning into the world.
• Religion achieves this through myths, theories and visions
of the creation, nature, meaning and forms of the
universe, and our place in it.
2. Soteriological Dimension
• Religion provides a scheme for
salvation.
• Most religions, if not all, have their
soteriological or salvific dimension.
• It tries to give an answer to the
question “what happens after death?”
and how do we make sure we have a
good destination when we die, e.g.
heaven and earth for Christians,
samsara and moksha for Hindus, and
nirvana for Buddhists.
3. Anthropological Dimension

• While religion teaches us to live together properly, it also teaches us that

there is more than this mundane world.
• It encourages us to seek beyond the finite human experience and aspire for
what is greater which our mind could not comprehend.
4. Symbolic Dimension

• Religions have symbols and rituals.

• Symbols are signs used for sacred objects or ideas
and are used to give meaning to human behavior.
• Religious rituals and practices are prescribed,
repeated behaviors with desired and intended
outcomes for the enrichment of the religion and the
person.
• Symbols and rituals help in creating a sound tradition
and transform through religious tradition, e.g. cross
for Christians, “om” for Hindus, and male
circumcision of Jews.
5. Moral Dimension
• Every religion provides a moral compass.
• All religions have a sense that there is a right way to
live and act – morality.
• To live a moral life is to live out the precepts of the
religion.
• The idea of good and evil has been an effective
doctrine in providing us with moral guidance.
• It must be noted, however, that the major religions
vary in their definitions of what constitutes a good life,
and the line between moral philosophy and religion is
far from clear.
6. Organizational Dimension

• All religions recognize an authority.

• Religious matters are often settled by religious
authorities.
• Most religions today are headed by priests or pastors
who undergo years of training and education to fulfill
their religious role as leaders.
• In other religions, the emphasis is placed on an internal
authority and personal understanding of how to live in
the world.
7. Theological Dimension

• Religions introduce the existence and nature of a supreme being.

• This is the defining feature of religion.
• A god is the primary object of all religious practice and devotion.
• The understanding of a particular religion mainly involves the necessary
knowledge and appreciation of the supreme being or beings.
• All forms of religious devotional systems are considered expressions of the
divine.
Religious Experience

• These two words may sound so simple but if we pay more

attention and reflect on them, we may realize that these two
words are not as easy as they appear.
• What is a religious experience?
• Which experience is to be considered as religious?
• Do you strictly need to witness a miracle or see God face to face
so that you can say that you have had a religious experience?
• These are only some of the questions surrounding the concept.
 Religious Experience

• To understand religious experience, let us first define the two words,

separately.
• The term “religious” may refer to divinity and to something holy or sacred;
hence, it does not refer to the profane. It may also refer to a set of beliefs.
• On the other hand, the word “experience” may be defined as something that
occurs in life, an event, often something personal or subjective in nature.
• Hence, when put together, religious experience may mean as a personal
experience that pertains to an encounter of the Sacred which is understood
within a religious framework.
• It is an experience of God.
• We may attribute the coining of this term to our
good friend, William James, who had made a lot of
contributions in the field of philosophy of religion.
• James provided a clearer distinction between
normal experience and religious experience.
According to him, what distinguishes religious
experience is that it is transcendental and that it
blocks everything away when you experience it.
• What transcendental means is that it takes us away
from our normal physical experience. It makes us
feel that we are connected to the divine.
Further, religious experience blocks everything away wherein you would only
want to focus your attention and engage only on that particular experience.
Religious experience is just a very distinct and unique experience that takes
you out of yourself.
• According to Rudolf Otto, religious experience is not
something readily given to everyone because it is not
something that is obvious. It takes effort and a great
deal of remembering in order to be conscious of it.
• Religious experiences are not obvious when they
happen. Most of the time they occur when we are
unaware.
• To give you a concrete example, even just the simple
event of meeting your crush can be also considered as
a religious experience if it leads you to transcendence,
or when it takes you out of yourself.
• It is not the recognition we get from our religious experience that is of
importance here.
• Also, to find out the reason or the cause of the religious experience is not
what we should exhaust our energy into.
• What we should pay attention to are the consequences of our religious
experience. As the saying goes “it is not about the roots, but all about the
fruits”.
• These religious experiences are important because of their transformative
power.
• It is about how they affect our lives that lead us to devote ourselves to
religion more fully.
A popular example would be the story of St. Paul on his way to
Damascus. If his religious experience did not take place, then
Christianity might not be the way it is today.

On January 25, Christianity celebrate the

Conversion of Saint Paul, one of the great
events of the early Church. Saul, a student of
the great Pharisee rabbi Gamaliel, had
persecuted Christians, but was suddenly
converted on the road to Damascus when our
Lord appeared to him in His resurrected glory
(Acts 9:1-9). From this point, he took the name
Paul, and would become the “Apostle to the
Gentiles.”
Siddhartha Gautama, or more popularly known as the Buddha. If he
had not experienced Nirvana, Buddhism might never have existed.
For basketball fanatics, the story of Jayjay Helterbrand may even qualify as a religious
experience. Helterbrand got addicted to drugs and women, but changed and started to become
a faithful believer because of a miracle that happened with his sick daughter.
Or Many people’s experience…
Spirituality

• Spirituality, just like religion and religious experience, is a concept

we often hear but barely know what it means. In order to
understand what spirituality is let us first discuss what spirituality
is not.
 What spirituality is not:

1. Spirituality is not similar to spiritism, or the belief that spirits exist

apart from matter. It is also the conviction that when the spirit splits
from the body, the spirit haunts the world as ghosts.

(Spiritism, spiritist doctrine, Kardecism or Kardecist spiritism is a

reincarnationist doctrine established in France in the mid-19th century by
the author and educator Allan Kardec. https://www.google.com.ph/url?
sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjappnm7oqCAxWAcWwGHc9ZDOsQmhN6BAhBEAI&url=h
ttps%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSpiritism&usg=AOvVaw0_6TPADhcFKwAtcUEgWJt9&opi=89978449)
 What spirituality is not:

2. Spirituality is not the same as Spiritualism, or the belief in the

survival of the human personality and in communication between the
living and the dead. An example of spiritualism is the use of a Ouija
board.

[Spiritualism was a social religious movement in the nineteenth

century, according to which an individual's awareness persists after
death and may be contacted by the living. The afterlife, or the
"spirit world", is seen by spiritualists not as a static place, but as
one in which spirits continue to evolve. https://www.google.com.ph/url?
sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwib8uj874qCAxU-
rVYBHQ_EKa8QmhN6BAhZEAI&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki
%2FSpiritualism&usg=AOvVaw1lxbV6FEgBlcRJYB0r9qVa&opi=89978449 ]
 What spirituality is not:

3. Spirituality is not mesmerism or animal magnetism. Mesmerism is an activity

that is performed which makes the subject dazed and be subordinated to the
operator.

[the act of putting someone into a mental state like sleep, in which a
person’s thoughts can be easily influenced by someone else.
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/mesmerism ]
 What spirituality is not:

4. Spirituality is not hypnotism.

[“Hypnotism” was the term originally

used by James Braid to denote that
which he otherwise called “nervous
sleep” and which is today known as
“hypnosis,”
https://www.encyclopedia.com/medicine/psychology/psychology-
and-psychiatry/hypnotism ]
What spirituality is not:

• Spirituality is not similar to religiosity. Religiosity is oftentimes

confused with spirituality. Religiosity concerns itself with religion,
traditions, and beliefs; hence, it is man-made, external, and
visible to the eye. Religiosity is the outward show of religion.
So now, what is spirituality?

• A quick answer to the question is that spirituality is concerned

with the problems connected with the spirit or soul.
• This definition presupposes that we are embodied spirits. What
this means is that we are composed of a body and a spirit.
• In addition, according to Sawan Ashram, “Spirituality...is the
science of developing higher consciousness in Man on the level of
the soul, and making one transcend from mere bodily
consciousness into cosmic consciousness, so as to enable one to
understand the working of the divine plan.”
So now, what is spirituality?

• Simplyput, spirituality pertains to “self-realization” and “God-

realization”.
• Man has the innate ability to transcend from the physical world to
a higher dimension of life which is the spiritual world.
• It is a personal quest to seek something beyond the physical world.
• Thus, self-transcendence is very essential in understanding one’s
own spirituality.
• Spirituality can exist without religion.
• A person does not have to believe in any religion in order to pursue
* spiritual growth. However, we may say that both religiosity and spirituality
would grow more if they are practiced together.
• The terms “religious but not spiritual” and “spiritual but not religious” are
becoming a trend today. The problem with the former is that there is a
practice of religion but lacks an internalization.
• An example of which is a person who attends worships regularly but does
not embody the teachings of their religion. On the other hand, the danger
with the latter is that everything is possible if spirituality is not guided by
religion.
• However, if spirituality and religiosity will be practiced together, it would
produce a better outcome.
• Spirituality can give better meaning to religiosity while religiosity can
guide our spirituality.
Summary and Conclusion

• We have tried to elucidate different concepts such as religion, religious

experience and spirituality.
• We have learned that there are many ways to define each concept that is why
it is necessary for us to keep an open mind in order to understand them
properly.
• The study of religion is harder and more technical than we think it is.
• However, as we move along our discussions and start studying a particular
religion, these concepts will hopefully make more sense to us.
Hinduism
In this module, we will explore the world’s oldest
major religion, which is Hinduism. It consists of a wide
range of beliefs and practices. Hinduism has a huge
number of followers in India, consisting of 80% of its
population, or about 1 billion people. The surprising
thing about Hinduism is that its teachings and practices
are often used by different people without knowing that
their origins came from Hinduism. Therefore, in this
module, we will try to identify this religion’s central
ideas and clarify common misconceptions about
Hinduism.
 Introduction

• Before we start discussing Hinduism, let us first clarify some misconceptions

about the term, and place ourselves into the right mindset.
• In order to properly understand this complex and highly diverse religion, the first
thing we need to do is to deconstruct our prior knowledge which prevents us from
really understanding the concept because it puts us on the wrong footing.
• Hinduism does not strictly speak of one single religion.
• Hinduism is a modern term that was first used in the latter half of the 18th
century, although its traditions are ancient.
• As a matter of fact, the term does not even have an obvious equivalent in the
Indic languages.
Introduction

• Hinduism, simply put, refers to different religions and spiritual

philosophies that have their origin within the Indian subcontinent.
• Thus, the term Hinduism somehow encapsulated different religions
and traditions of Indian civilization.
• Interpreting the term Hinduism became a general name for the
rich and diverse traditions existing in the Indus region.
• So, does this mean that there is no such thing as Hinduism before
the second half of the 18th century? The short answer to this is no.
Introduction

• Most modern scholars nowadays have come to an agreement that the term
Hinduism may still be applied to the time before its invention.
• However, since Hinduism did not exist before the 18th century, it is
unavoidable to encounter some problems when the term is applied to the
period prior to its creation.
• A good analogy for what I am trying to say here is the concept of labels in
relationships. When romantic partners decide to make their “thing” official,
it does not mean that what they felt before giving their relationship a
proper label is invalid or non-existent, i.e. you were already in love or had
feelings for each other even before the label.
• The label just affirms and validates something which was already existing.
 Introduction

• This is also true in Hinduism – the beliefs and practices were already there even
before the term was created and used.
• In addition, labels just provide clarity to what the relationship is and what it is
not.
• However, labels, like Hinduism, may or may not fit seamlessly when applied to
the period earlier than their legitimization, e.g. if one of the partners starts
invoking their label after figuring out that his/her partner was having an affair
with someone before the label happened.
Introduction

• Furthermore, since in this module and in the next one we are going to
discuss religions that find their origins in India, it is important that you get
properly oriented with their philosophical dispositions.
• If we are studying religions, then why do we need to study their philosophy?
The simple answer to this is that religion and philosophy will always be
intertwined.
• These religions are not divorced from their philosophical references.
• Therefore, to fully understand Hinduism, and even Buddhism in the next
module, their philosophical contexts must be first discussed.
 Introduction

• Indian thinking is predominantly theocentric – god-centered – and

anthropocentric – man-centered.
• What this means is that religion and self-discovery play crucial roles in the way
they think and conduct their actions.
• According to Alfredo Co, the question that would best characterize Indian
civilization would be “who am I?”. Sino ako? How does this question then relate
to theo-centrism?
• Indian philosophy is always in a quest of knowing the Ultimate Truth, which they
call Brahman (considered as the creator of everything).
Introduction

• According to their beliefs, the best way to know the Ultimate Truth is
through self-discovery. As a result, they pay much attention to self-
discovery to be able to align themselves in the cosmic order which is their
access to Brahman. This also stems from the idea that there is a part of
Brahman in all of us.
• Their traditional greeting “namaste” means “the Brahman in me greets the
Brahman in you”. This may be difficult to understand for now but as we
move along this module, let us try our best to give this concept a bit of
clarity.
• With all these in mind, we are now ready to explore Hinduism.
Origin and History

Indus Valley Civilization: Scholars say that the origin of Hinduism

dates back to around 2000 BCE in the Indus Valley. Just like other
ancient civilizations, the Indus Valley is situated near a river called
the Indus River. It is through this river that the inhabitants of the
Indus Valley are sustained. From this, two major cities, namely
Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, developed. This civilization was
marked by a uniformity of culture, specifically in terms of
engineering and architecture.

There are still a lot of mysteries pertaining to this civilization because only a few pieces of evidence were left.
However, there were artifacts that link the Indus Valley civilization and present-day Hinduism. The great bath, the
suspected early figurine of the Hindu deity Shiva and artifacts that portray animal sacrifice, are only some of the
proofs found to support the claim that the traditions of Hinduism really stemmed out from the Indus Valley
civilization. These pieces of evidence that they have found relate to the emphasis on ritual bathing, goddess worship,
and sacrifice, which were later practiced in Hinduism.
Whether these artifacts are really traces of the early civilization of Hinduism, it is clear that the earliest Hindus
were nomadic, herding people who identified themselves as Aryans, which means “noble ones”. These people
spoke Sanskrit and scholars believe that they came from Turkey. There are two theories surrounding the
development of the Aryan tradition. The first theory would be that the Aryans, coming from Central Asia, invaded
the inhabitants of the Indus Valley and established the dominant culture. The second theory is that the Aryans just
developed the existing culture of the original inhabitants of the Indus Valley. Because of the lack of artifacts, there
is very little certain information about the background of the Aryans who were the first believers of Hinduism.
Who really were Aryans?
 Traditions

• Many Gods, One Essence: The Hindus, arguably, may have the most complex concept of the sacred
Hinduism is theistic and monistic at the same time. It is theistic because the Hindus have a concept of deities.
On the other hand, it is monistic because of their belief that everything goes back to one ultimate source. This
means that Hinduism is monotheistic. However, its monotheism is often questioned because of their practice
of worshipping different deities.
• Again, this is a misconception about Hindu worship. It is true that Hindus worship 330 million gods.
• However, they only consider one supreme God – Brahman. How is this possible? Hinduism allows its
believers to worship Brahman in many different forms and persons, called avatars. They recognize the fact
that there is only one God, but is conveyed in many different faces.
• These forms, known as devas, deities, are not supposed to be confused with the one God, Brahman. This
perspective is also reflected in their view of They believe that there I sone reality but we see it in different
forms.
The doctrine of “many gods but one essence” is also present in the Vedas (knowledge) and Upanishads (to sit
nearby), which are two of the many sacred scriptures of Hinduism. These scriptures talk about the singular God as
the only one, without a second, without parents or lords, without likeness to anyone or anything, and cannot be seen
by the eye. Brahman is considered as unchanging and infinite, immanent and transcendent. Brahman is the divine
ground of all matter in the universe and beyond. Brahman is the Supreme Force, the Absolute Reality – omnipresent,
omnipotent, omniscient, and indescribable. Brahman is also genderless. This is how Brahman is described in their
sacred scriptures.
Hindus worship Brahman in many different forms. According to ancient Hindu tales, the Puranas, Brahman
created Shiva. After this, followed the creation of different deities. Shiva then created Vishnu. Then, from a
lotus flower associated with the navel of Vishnu came Brahma (note that Brahman and Brahma are not the
same). These three deities emerged as the supreme divinity of Hinduism known as the Trimurti, which
means trinity. The Trimurti is the cosmic function of creation, maintenance, and destruction personified.
Caste System: This system provides
a social stratification among Hindus.
Simply put, it classifies people in
terms of their roles which gives
them their status in society. But
unaware as we are, this social
stratification is not just politically
and economically determined, but
also has a religious implication. In
fact, this kind of social stratification
is found in the teachings of the Rig
Veda and the laws of Manu, a
collection of ethical and religious
guidelines for individuals and
societies. These writings stand at the
heart of the Hindu caste system.
Wikipedia describes castes as “rigid social
groups characterized by hereditary transmission
of lifestyle, occupation and social status”. The
word is derived from the Portuguese word casta
meaning “race, lineage or breed”. Hence, the
word ‘caste’ is not an Indian word.

Though the caste system in India is said to have

its origins in ancient (Vedic) Indian society, the
modern concept of the caste system is social or
societal.

Really the caste system has originated from two

concepts — Varna and Jathi.

Varna is the system described in the Vedic

texts.

Jathi is the word for ‘caste’, and it depends

upon one’s birth and lineage.
The word caste came from the Portuguese word casta, which means pure. It came only in the 16th
century during the Portuguese occupation in India. Casta refers to the importance of not mixing colors.
On the other hand, the varna, which means color, is the Sanskrit word used to refer to this kind of
stratification. Varna, later on, evolved in meaning from “color” to “class” to refer to the social
stratification system’s early stages, and then “caste” for what the system later evolved into.

There are four classes in society according to the Rig Veda.

- The first and highest class would be brahmins. The priests and the sages make
up this social class.

- Next in line would be the kshatriyas which are the warriors of the society.

- The third in the caste system are the vaishyas. This group is in charge of
producing goods in society, e.g. bankers, merchants, and farmers.

- The bottom class of the original caste system would be the shudras or the
servants.
Hindu teachings believe in the idea that the cosmos follows a certain order. To achieve that order,
everything must be put into their proper place and that includes the social system which sets people into
their proper places in society. This system carried an inherent religious hierarchy: the higher your social
class, the closer you are to the gods, the more purposeful your life is.

After some years with the caste system in place, jati, which is also called birth groups or occupational
groups, began to develop within the varna system. Preserving the family occupation was the driving force
that developed the jati. This emphasized the hereditary nature of labor, e.g. if your father was a carpenter,
then you would also be a carpenter. In the rural parts of India today, jati is the basis for the presence of the
multi-level and sub-caste system.

The brahmins who are the scholars of society created laws in the implementation of the detailed caste
system. One of the laws they had created is the prohibition of social interaction and marriage among the
different social classes. Socialization was limited to the same jati because interacting or touching, even if
accidental, is considered ritual impurity, especially to the person who has a higher status.

However, because of the jati, the caste system did not stay significant because of its effects. Because of the
lack of social mobility and narrow occupational specialization, it was necessary to disregard the practice.
In short, the practice declined because it was an impediment to progress.
At some point, the jati were thought to be so polluting to society. An
example of the problems it has caused to society is the emergence of the
“untouchables”, or today known as the dalits, or oppressed. Mahatma
Gandhi called them harijan, which means “children of God”. These
people were excluded from society because of the nature of their works
which are most prone to ritual impurity.

Over time, the brahmins formulated laws in order to preserve the caste
system for future generations. They invoked the Upanishads to declare
that attempting to change one’s social class will result in bad karma and
possibly a reincarnation to an even worse life. As a result, there is an
inflexible social stratification that exists in most Indian societies today.
One’s social, economic, and religious future is determined as early as
birth. Many scholars blame this system to India’s continuing demise as a
third
world country.
 Religious Experience

Yoga
• is commonly understood as a physical activity which one does inside the gym or even in the comfort of one’s own home. It is the
activity of conscious stretching which is accompanied by mindful breathing. An even worse perception would be that it is an
activity only performed by a person wearing spandex on top of their colorful yoga mat.
• the idea of such yoga the commercialized version. Capitalism has notoriously bastardized this unique culture in order to gain
profit out of it.
• However, there is more to yoga than stretching your arms and legs to maintain good health and well-being. Yoga is a spiritual
activity and even a major school of thought in Hinduism.
• The kind of yoga that a common person knows is just one aspect of it. The exercise involving complex contortions and postures
of the body is known as hathayoga.
• The Sanskrit term yoga, which means “to yoke or to join”, refers to the union of the atman, the individual soul, to the Brahman,
the ultimate soul, and attain liberation from the cycle of rebirth.
• To explain further, the atman and the Brahman cannot reconnect with each other because the former is clouded by anger, envy,
fear, and other negative things. The Hindu believes that the goal of practicing yoga is to help the atman reconnect with the
Brahman.
• The other term for yoga that Hindus sometimes use is marga, which means path. A person who practices yoga is called a yogi.
The three widely recognized practices of yoga are as follows:

1. Karma Yoga (the way of action) - It is the most common path for
the Hindus. It is duty-based. It is living in accordance with the proper
order of things that is determined by gender, caste, and stage of life.

According to the traditionalists, to be able to practice karma yoga, the

practitioner needs to follow the Laws of Manu wherein everything is
prescribed.

Also, according to the Bhagavad Gita, practitioners of this form of

yoga must always keep in mind that everything they do is a form of
sacrifice to God. This is considered the easiest yoga to perform.
2. Bhakti Yoga (the way of devotion) - This
kind of yoga is a worship of a personal deity,
but the believer has the freedom to choose
which deity they want to worship. Unlike
most religions, Hinduism does not have a
specific day in a week when to worship. The
expression of devotion is considered a daily
activity. Also, each deity has a temple where
devotees make pilgrimages.

https://www.tummee.com/yoga-poses/bhakti-yoga-
poses
To practice Bhakti Yoga, we do not need anything other than our hearts. Bhakti yoga practitioners
express their devotion by chanting, prayer and rituals. While most forms of yoga focus on the physical
aspect (asana) or specific breathing or meditation techniques, Bhakti yoga recommends various
contemplative techniques and rituals.

As per ancient scriptures, Bhagavata Purana and Vishnu Purana, there are nine techniques to develop
Bhakti, and a devotee can practice any method that suits them the best. These techniques help to reduce
ego and progress on the path of Bhakti Yoga. These are listed below:

•Shravana (Hearing God's stories)

•Kirtana (Singing God's glory)
•Smarana (Remembrance of God's name and presence)
•Padsevana (Service of God's feet)
•Archana (Worship of God)
•Vandana (Prostration to the God)
•Dasya (Cultivating the feeling of servant to God)
•Sakhya (Cultivating the feeling of being a friend with God)
•Atma Nivedana (Complete surrender of the self)
However, in all the above poses, it is necessary to ensure that the body is straight and erect. The head,
neck, and back have to be in alignment, relax the shoulders and abdominal muscles, and close the eyes.
Hands can be in any particular Mudra like Chin Mudra or Gyan Mudra.

The practice of Bhakti Yoga leads to:

•Improved Focus: This path of yoga develops devotion and faith and therefore, destroys hindrances to
concentration and meditation. Research has shown that this path of yoga also leads to improved attention
capacity and enhanced focus on day-to-day activities. Belief and prayer help people to worry less and
focus on finding solutions to problems. This strengthens their overall capacity to focus on significant
things. It is meditative and the outcome is phenomenal.
•Better Relationships: Bhakti Yoga transforms one into a gentle being and develops a zeal for
giving. In this way, interpersonal relationships become harmonious.

•A calm mind: Bhakti Yoga removes anger, egoism, hatred, and jealousy, and infuses bliss,
ecstasy, joy, and peace in one's mind. Eventually, all anxieties, fears, and insecurities vanish. Also,
group songs and chanting have been linked to improved moods and psychological well-being.

•Pain Relief: Poetry and songs have been linked to pain management for decades. As per an
article published by PubMed Central, reading and listening to poetry had healing effects,
especially during the recent COVID-19 pandemic.

•Liberation: One of the main aims of Bhakti Yoga is to attain liberation. Many advanced
practitioners have experienced this particular aspect of bhakti yoga.

Lastly, yoga teachers can choose from 300+ Bhakti Yoga Poses to practice this style of yoga and
attain the supreme goal of liberation.

https://www.tummee.com/yoga-poses/bhakti-yoga-poses
Jnana Yoga (the way of knowledge) - This form of yoga gives emphasis on knowledge as a way to
reconnect with the Ultimate Reality. Meditation is the tool of the practitioners where they engage in a
strict physical, spiritual, mental, and moral discipline. It also involves the repetition of mantras and a
sacred word. The Om is the most famous mantra and is the representation of Brahma through sound.

Jnana is Sanskrit for “knowledge or wisdom” and Jnana Yoga is the path of attaining knowledge of the
true nature of reality through the practice of meditation, self-inquiry, and contemplation. Jnana Yoga
can be defined as the “awareness of absolute consciousness,” and is a comprehensive practice of self-
study (Svadhyaya).

In Jnana yoga, the mind is used to inquire into its own nature and to transcend the mind’s identification
with its thoughts and ego. The fundamental goal of Jnana yoga is to become liberated from the
illusionary world of maya (self-limiting thoughts and perceptions) and to achieve the union of the inner
Self (Atman) with the oneness of all life (Brahman). This is achieved by steadfastly practicing the
mental techniques of self-questioning, reflection and conscious illumination that are defined in the
Four Pillars of Knowledge. Jnana Yoga utilizes a one-pointed meditation on a single question of self-
inquiry to remove the veils of illusion created by your concepts, world views, and perceptions. This
practice allows you to realize the temporary and illusionary nature of maya and to see the oneness of
all things.

https://www.yogabasics.com/learn/jnana-yoga-the-yoga-of-wisdom/
 “Jnana Yoga, or the science of the Self, is not a subject that
can be understood and realized through mere intellectual
study, reasoning, discussion or arguments. It is the most
difficult of all sciences.”
– Swami Sivananda

Prerequisites of Jnana Yoga

The Four Pillars of Knowledge (sadhana chatushtaya) are the prescribed steps toward achieving liberation in
Jnana Yoga. These practices build upon each other and thus should be practiced in sequential order. Even if one
does not have the goal of achieving liberation, practicing these techniques will cultivate spiritual insight and
understanding as well as reduce one’s suffering and dissatisfaction of life:

1. Viveka (discernment, discrimination) is a deliberate, continuous intellectual effort to distinguish

between the real and the unreal, the permanent and the temporary, and the Self and not-Self.

2. Vairagya (dispassion, detachment) is cultivating non-attachment or indifference toward the

temporal objects of worldly possessions and the ego-mind. “It is only when the mind is
absolutely free from the attachment of all sorts that true knowledge begins to dawn.” – Swami
Sivananda.
3. Shatsampat (six virtues) are six mental practices to stabilize the mind and emotions, and to further develop the
ability to see beyond the illusions of maya.
1. Shama (tranquility, calmness) is the ability to keep the mind peaceful, through moderating its reaction to
external stimuli.
2. Dama (restraint, control) is the strengthening of the mind to be able to resist the control of the senses, and
the training of the senses to be used only as instruments of the mind.
3. Uparati (withdrawal, renunciation) is the abandonment of all activities that are not one’s Dharma (Duty). A
simple lifestyle is followed that contains no worldly distractions from the spiritual path.
4. Titiksha (endurance, forbearance) is the tolerance of external non-conducive situations that are commonly
considered to produce suffering, especially in extreme opposite states (success and failure, hot and cold,
pleasure and pain).
5. Shraddha (faith, trust) is a sense of certainty and belief in one’s guru (teacher), the scriptures and the yogic
path.
6. Samadhana (focus, concentration) is the complete one-pointedness of the mind.

4. Mumukshutva (longing, yearning) is an intense and passionate desire for achieving the liberation from suffering.
In order to achieve liberation, one must be completely committed to the path, with such longing that all other desires
fade away.
Raja Yoga (Additional Yoga practice)

In the yoga tradition, there are many different paths and philosophies, but they all lead toward the same goal
—attaining moksha or liberation. Raja yoga is viewed as the supreme or “royal path” to attaining this state of
unity of mind-body-spirit.

Raja yoga is a systematic approach that has been practiced for thousands of years by yogis who have attained
great levels of spiritual awareness.

It is so highly revered because it attains enlightenment from direct control and mastery of the mind.

This approach is an extremely challenging and difficult practice to engage in, yet the structure of the
eightfold path makes it possible with dedication and practice.

https://www.yogabasics.com/learn/raja-yoga-oneness-through-meditation/
Raja Yoga: Definition, Benefits and How to Practice

In Sanskrit, the word raja translates as king, chief, or royal. Thus, raja yoga is considered to be the best path to attaining
the highest state of yoga—samadhi or enlightenment. It refers to both the highest goal of yoga and the meditation
practices used to attain this goal.

Swami Vivekananda describes this internal meditative practice as a path towards mastering the whole universe. He writes,
“Raja-Yoga proposes to start from the internal world, to study internal nature, and through that, control the whole—both
internal and external.”

Raja yoga is also considered the king of yogas as it is one of the most difficult and challenging spiritual paths. This path of
meditation and mind control is best suited for people who are well versed in yoga philosophy and lead contemplative and
yogic lifestyles.

One of the other four classical schools of yoga (jnana, bhakti, and karma) may offer a student an easier path to moksha
(spiritual liberation), self realization and inner peace.
Patanjali’s eight limbs of Ashtanga Yoga

Raja yoga is often referred to as “classical yoga” as it was the oldest system of yoga to be systematically developed
into a unified practice.

The practice of raja yoga was compiled by the sage Patanjali in his famous Yoga Sutras during the second century
CE.

The Sutras break down the practice of yogic meditation into eight limbs or sub-practices.

The first four limbs are referred to as the external limbs and are to be practiced simultaneously.

Some of these limbs have the same names as the Hatha Yoga practices, but are not the same and should not be
confused.

The last four limbs are referred to as the internal limbs and are practiced sequentially.
Continuation…

The foundation of raja yoga is Patanjali’s external limbs of Yama, Niyama, Asana, and pranayama.

Yama and Niyama are the principles of right conduct and lifestyle, the dos and don’ts of yoga.

Yama, respect for others, includes nonviolence, truth, honesty, moderation, and non-covetousness.

Niyama, positive self-action, includes purity, contentment, discipline, self-study, and devotion.

Patanjali simply instructs one to find a comfortable yet stable seated position. The same confusion exists with Patanjali’s
instruction in pranayama.

Patanjali only instructs the Raja yogi to observe and slow the breath down to the point where one cannot distinguish between
the inhalation and the exhalation.

The numerous yoga postures andbreathing exercises were developed much later as part of the Hatha Yoga system of
mastering the body to still the mind.

https://www.yogabasics.com/learn/raja-yoga-oneness-through-meditation/
Spirituality
Dharma
Hindus believe that there is a cosmic order that must be followed,
and that everything must be put into their proper places.

It is like believing that there is a natural flow of things. That belief is

called dharma, and it means duty.

According to Hindu belief, this dharma determines people’s role in

life and in society.

The dharma of a person is determined by birth and by caste. When

the dharma is not observed, chaos ensues.
 Spirituality

Karma

Before we explain karma in its real essence, let us first understand what is atman.

Hinduism teaches that the true nature of the human person is the eternal and unchanging soul known as the atman, or
the individual soul that we mentioned previously.

Every living being has an atman, including plants and insects.

What this means is that Hindus believe that every living being has a soul and a body. Our physical body is the house of
the atman. The physical body, on the one hand, is not eternal because it is subject to death. On the other hand, the
atman is eternal and unchanging.

In short, the physical body dies, but the atman stays. The question now is what happens to the atman after the physical
body dies? This is where the concept of karma comes in.
 Spirituality

Samsara
The reason why being aware of the karmic cycle is very important to the Hindus is because of this concept of samsara,
which means “flowing on”.

This is the concept of the cycle of rebirth, or the afterlife, of the Hindus.

This is also like the idea of heaven and hell of the Christians, but the difference is that the view of Hindus of life is
cyclical, which means that you die only to be born again.

Therefore, we can say that Hinduism does not believe in the saying that you only live once, because you will continue
to be reincarnated, only in a different physical form, until you pass your mission.
 Spirituality

Moksha
Everything that we have discussed about Hinduism all boils down to the concept of moksha, which means liberation.
Moksha is the liberation from the endless cycle of rebirth. For us, non-Hindus, this may sound undesirable. Who would not
want to have another chance to live? The answer to this would bring us back to their ultimate goal of reuniting the atman
with the Brahman. To better understand this situation, imagine that
you are playing a video game. In every video game, there is a possibility for a “game over” if the mission or objective of
the game is not met. As a result, you get another chance to play the game in order to complete the mission. The idea of
rebirth for the Hindus is also like this, in one way or another. A reincarnation means that you have failed to reunite with the
Brahman.
 Summary/Conclusion

However, this lengthy discussion of Hinduism is even less of the surface level of the knowledge that we need to learn
in order to really understand this complex religion. This just goes to show the richness of Hinduism in terms of its
beliefs and traditions. Perhaps, it would take a life-long journey if we really intend to get a good grasp of what this
religion is all about. Nevertheless, even with the basic knowledge that we have about this religion, there is already
much that we can learn from it. Maybe we can apply their law of karma in our daily lives or even their concept of
dharma, that a certain order in the universe must be observed and respected.
 Buddhism

Like Hinduism, this religion is also highly diverse, with about 400
followers.

According to records, Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama, or more popularly

known as the Buddha, in the 6th century.

Buddhism has successfully spread throughout South Asia to Southeast and East Asia.

Although Buddhism has been known globally, most of its teachings still remain unknown to
many.

Therefore, the goal of this module is to provide you with Buddhism’s central concepts and
beliefs.
Introduction: Balance and moderation might be the right words to describe the
religion of Buddhism because it tries to answer the problem of “too much and too little”.

Deconstructing some misconceptions about Buddhism:

This religion is almost always associated with a lot of

negative things. When we hear the word, Buddha, there is a high probability that the fat Buddha is what comes to our
mind. This kind of Buddha is associated with business and good luck.

Another wrong notion is that Buddhism originated in China, and that Buddha was Chinese, which later on
would lead to the association of Buddhism with kung fu.

Also, some people think that Buddhism is just a simple act of meditation to
achieve calmness of the mind.

However, none of these properly explain Buddhism. Perhaps, these ideas were only products of enculturation,
or maybe an effect of watching too much Bruce Lee and Jackie Chan movies.
 Introduction:

Buddhism, like Hinduism, has its origin in India. there is a considerable amount of resemblance between Hindu and
Buddhist concepts. Proper to say that Hinduism has a significant influence on Buddhism.

However, despite the influence, Buddhism still remains as a unique religion because of how it addressed the existential
problems of humanity. First chapter of this course dwell on how religions address existential questions and problems.

In addition, Buddhism also focuses on self-discovery, but without a concept of the divine. In short, it is anthropocentric,
but not theocentric.

What it lacks on theology, however, it makes up for in its analysis on how one could end the cycle of rebirth.

Buddhism did not rely much on Hindu religious practices, like rituals and sacred texts. It advocated a change of lifestyle
in order to solve the problem of rebirth. In other words, it provides a new and different solution to the endless cycle of
the rebirth of the soul.
Origin and History
According to scholars, Buddhism began in India in the 6th century BCE. During that
time, India was experiencing radical social and political change.

The formation of kingdoms, expansion of cities, flourishing of trade routes, and the
attempt to pull people away from the simplicity of village life, were the focus of local
rulers.

In addition, Hinduism was the prevalent religion during that time. These were the
conditions where Buddhism introduced itself in India.
Siddhartha Gautama

The origin story of Buddhism

cannot be separated from the
life story of Siddhartha
Gautama, or more popularly
known as the Buddha, the
founder of Buddhism. As a
matter of fact, most Buddhist
teachings are derived from the
personal reflections and
realizations of Siddhartha on his
own life experiences. Now, who
is this Siddhartha Gautama?
During his time, Siddhartha Gautama was not just a common person. He was a prince belonging to the warrior caste in a
place that we now know as Nepal. His birth came around the year 563 BCE. There is not enough information on how
Siddhartha Gautama lived his life.

But what is famously known about Siddhartha is the prophecy that he was subjected to. According to this prophecy,
Siddhartha was destined to be either of two things: a great political leader or a homeless monk.

His father, who belongs to the warrior caste, preferred that Siddhartha should become a great political leader to preserve
the family’s status. As a result of this, Siddhartha’s father did everything he could to prevent the latter part of the
prophecy from happening. His father provided him with much luxury, and secluded him from all the harsh realities of
life.

All of the poor and the suffering were all put away from the sight of Gautama. He even got married to a beautiful
princess and had a son.

All the efforts of his father were wasted when, one day, Siddhartha, for the first time, saw the harsh realities of life while
he was walking around the place which his father prevented him from seeing.

While walking, he saw a man afflicted with illness, an aging man, a dead man, and a monk walking alone in a yellow
robe. These truths about the human condition severely bothered Siddhartha. For the first time, he came to realize that
life is not just about happiness, and that human suffering was more common than happiness.
Perhaps, all of us have experienced this realization. When we were
young, we were made to believe that life is always good and
because of our innocence as a child, we fail to recognize the
negative things in life.

We can also thank our parents for doing their best to protect us
from all unpleasant things. However, as we grow old and start to
explore the world, it is unavoidable to see that life is not perfect at
all and that life is very frightening.

Imagine that all throughout our lives we struggle to be better, but

at the end of it all, we are all just going to age and die anyway.
This is a very disturbing reality that we are not used to. What is
the point of living?

Not even wealth can stop us from getting sick, old, and dying.
Perhaps, this is also what Siddhartha felt when he was exposed to
the inevitable realities of existence.
As a result of this, Siddhartha secretly left everything he had to search for the answer to his existential problems.
Siddhartha chose to become a monk and opened his mind about the Hindu brahmins.

For six years, he followed the teachings of the Upanishads about meditations. Further, he also practiced extreme
asceticism for five years, wherein it came to the point that he only ate a single grain of rice, which made him faint.

After his revival, he realized that severely depriving himself of worldly pleasures would not lead him to the answers that
he longs to see.

The story of how Siddhartha was able to find the answer is quite lengthy. So to make the long story short, Siddhartha
found the answers in a place named Bodh Gaya, which is located in the northeast of India, while meditating under a
Bodhi tree.

But before that, he was first tempted while he was meditating. Mara, the god of desire and death, encouraged him to just
go home and continue living his luxurious life. However, Siddhartha was firm with his decision to search for the answer.

Through that meditation, he was able to realize what he truly desired, and through that, he felt a sense of awakening.
This experience gave him the answer that he was looking for, an answer to the problems of suffering, aging, and death.
He was now the Buddha, the enlightened one, and his state was marked by a lack of craving – nirvana.
After this awakening, Buddha was again faced with another problem.
Was he supposed to tell others that he had discovered the dharma, the
answer to the problem of rebirth? The answer to this is obvious.

Buddha chose to share what he discovered and this is the reason for the
existence of Buddhism.

Buddha preached the Middle Way for 45 years. He died at the age of
eighty near Varanasi in northern India.

The Buddhist tradition believes that Buddha overcame the cycle of

rebirth, or samsara, and entered the state of parinirvana, which is like
the concept of moksha of the Hindus. “Work out your own liberation
with diligence,” were his last words to his followers.

These words may mean that liberation is a personal journey that they
must patiently strive to achieve.
 Spread of Buddhism

If the Christians have Constantine the Great, the Buddhists have King Ashoka. You might not have an idea of who these
people are but you best believe that they are very important in the flourishing of their respective religions.

King Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire caused the major turning point of Buddhist history. This king ruled northern India for
35 years. Using the authority that he had, he commanded all his people to follow the teachings of Buddha.

King Ashoka was determined to really spread Buddhism. In fact, he even sent missionaries abroad. The successful expansion
of Buddhism began when ambassadors reached Sri Lanka, where Buddha’s teachings
were greatly accepted.

Later on, countries like Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, and Vietnam were also reached by Buddhist
missionaries. It took hundreds of years before Buddhism really experienced success with its attempt to expand. Today, Sri
Lanka remains one of the centers of preservation of early Buddhist history. Most countries that have been largely under the
spell of Buddhism have chosen to be under its more conservative branch, Theravada Buddhism.
 Traditions

Theravada Buddhism, which literally translates to “the way of the elders”, is the kind of
Buddhism that spread throughout Sri Lanka and other neighboring countries through the
efforts of King Ashoka.

We can probably say that Theravada Buddhism is the purest form of Buddhism because it stayed faithful to the teachings of
Buddha; thus, making it the conservative school of Buddhist thought.

Further, this form of Buddhism developed from the series of debates and splits concerning the authenticity of the teachings
of Buddha. What became their basis for reconstructing Buddha’s life and teachings were the earliest records of the
Buddhist tradition.
Traditions

New Buddhist movements developed after the death of King Ashoka. Mahayana Buddhism, which literally means
“large vehicle”, was given birth after smaller schools of Buddhism chose to unite. We can better understand the name
Mahayana by looking at the Indian worldview. This worldview uses the river as a metaphor for the cycle of rebirth
and the riverbank on the other side as the liberation of the soul.

In addition, MahayanaBuddhism considers Theravada as Hinayana, which means a small vehicle or a raft.

There is a third branch of Buddhism. However, it is just considered as a sub-branch of Mahayana Buddhism. The
name Vajrayana, which literally means “thunderbolt or diamond vehicle”, was used to refer to this form of
Buddhism.

It is today known as Tibetan Buddhism or Zen Buddhism. This kind of Buddhism is regarded as an esoteric school
because only a few people with specialized knowledge of this Buddhism would be able to understand it.
Non-God

What is apparent in Buddhism is that it does not recognize the centrality of the role of a personal god or gods. This is,
therefore, the reason why it is usually considered as an atheistic religion.

But Theravada Buddhism does not really say that a god does not exist. Their position on the existence of a god can be
best described by agnosticism because they claim to have no knowledge of the existence of such.

In addition, the existence of a god would not matter for them because they believe that whether or not a god exists, it
would not affect the mechanics of the cycle of rebirth. Liberation will always be on the hand of the person and it will
stay as a personal journey.

Therefore, Theravada Buddhism believes that whether or not a god exists is not the question that one should exhaust
their energy
Religious Experience

After Buddha reached Nirvana, or enlightenment, he

chose to communicate the dharma, or the cosmic order, to
his followers so that they too can follow the path that has
led him to his awakening. He made his first public
preaching in a place known as the Deer Park in Sarnath,
Varanasi.

Buddha continued to preach the Middle Way, the path that

lies between denial and indulgence. This Middle Way is
what led the Buddha to the state of enlightenment and
attainment of truth.

What he discoursed with his followers has come to be

known as the Four Noble Truths which form the very core
of the teachings of Buddhism.
 First Noble Truth: Dukkha

The first noble truth that the Buddha identified is that life is suffering.

To exist is to suffer. To die is to suffer. To be ill is to suffer. To be separated is to suffer. To need is to suffer. In fact,
according to Theravada Buddhism, even in the things where we find joy and pleasure, there is suffering.

A relationship is one good example because all relationships will eventually come to an end. Friends leave or they get
left behind. No matter how nourishing the relationship has been, the experience of separation is always painful.

From the perspective of Theravada Buddhism, all aspects of life and human experience have the possibilities of
suffering. It is also for this same reason that Buddhists, just like the Hindus, want to end the cycle of rebirth, because to
live another life is to suffer once again.

This is the most fundamental problem of human existence which Buddha called dukkha, or suffering.
According to Buddha, we can only begin our spiritual journey when we start to accept that suffering is part of the human
condition. In short, whether we like it or not we really have no choice but to welcome suffering in our lives because it will
always be there. No amount of wealth, fame, power, and luxury can ever protect us from suffering.

The good things we have serve only as shields that prevent us to see the hardships in life. As long as one is
blinded by riches, starting a new and personal journey is not possible. As long as one leads a life of material lavishness,
one is suffering. Maybe, this teaching of Buddha so cynical and pessimistic. But it should not be confused realism with
pessimism. Buddha just wants to show his followers what life really is in its bareness, without the illusions that people use
to console themselves with.

Perhaps what Buddhism is trying to say here is that it is okay to enjoy life, but one must never ignore the
essential truths of existence. When we cling too much on the good things, we lose sight of what is real because we are too
distracted. Escaping a problem would not solve it. Problems need to be solved, not dissolved. If we do not know the
problem, we cannot also get out of it. Only when we recognize and face the problems can we identify what causes them
and eventually solve them later on.

Further, only when we accept these realities of life can we be able to know how we should live with them.
 Second Noble Truth: SamudAya
After identifying the problem, which is suffering, he pointed out that suffering has a cause. This is the second Noble Truth:
samudāya or origin.

In his diagnosis, Buddha blamed the desire for sensual pleasure, the desire to be born again, the desire for life to end as the
source of human suffering. Simply put, desire, or tanha, causes a person to suffer because it leads to attachment. **

In this religion, spiritual desires are not exempted. This kind of desire also leads to attachments that eventually lead to
suffering.

Theravada Buddhism teaches that to desire for existence to end will only lead to existence never coming to an end. Clinging
too much on the idea of liberation will only cause more rebirth and suffering. The attachment to the idea of liberation is as
deceiving as the attachment to the physical.

In fact, even Buddha learned this the hard way. In his story, before he reached nirvana, he was trying too hard to find the
answer to samsara. However, he was only liberated when he stopped desiring to be liberated.
According to Buddhism and even modern-day psychology, the reason
why we desire is because of our sensory faculties – eyes, ears, tongue,
nose, skin, etc. It is through these sensory faculties that we get in
contact and get a consciousness of the world. Imagine not having eyes.
Without your eyes, you would not see beauty. The same is true with the
other parts of your sensory faculties.

When what we perceive is good and pleasing to us we eventually develop

feelings and attachments; thus, causing us to suffer because we let
these things control us.

In our present culture where we are taught to desire and “go for it”, this
concept may sound strange. However, this problem might be because of
the vague definition of the word desire.

According to Theravada Buddhism, the key is to stop trying too hard

and let things happen. We can better understand desire in this sense:
wanting something o the point that you are trying too hard. Buddhism
tells us to stop trying too hard.
 Third Noble Truth: Nirodha
The third Noble Truth is perhaps the lighter side of Buddhism. This is where Buddha affirms that an existence
marked by suffering does not have to end in suffering. Buddha believes that there is an end to suffering, which he
called as nirodha, or the end of suffering. It is only possible when a person reaches the state of nirvana, which
means extinguishing. In short, when a person experiences the same form of enlightenment as what the Buddha
experienced, liberation follows. Buddha believes that if he can achieve it, so can his followers.

According to Buddhist scholars, there are two types of nirvana. The first type – the naturalistic side – of nirvana
happens in the here and now. In other words, it is the type of liberation which a follower of Buddhism can attain
while they are still alive. A person who has reached this first state of nirvana does not immediately disappear to a
heavenly realm. This is the liberation from the worldly desires that cause a person to suffer.

The second type – the metaphysical side – happens after the person dies. This is the type of liberation that is
concerned with the phenomenon of samsara. If the second form of liberation is attained, then that person would
not experience a rebirth. In short, it is the liberation of the soul from the cycle of rebirth. Once a person achieves
the first type of nirvana, the second kind is already guaranteed.