Chap.

1
Systems of Linear
Equations
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
1.3 Applications of Systems of Linear Equations
 Chapter Objectives
 Recognize, graph, and solve a system of linear equations
in n variables.
 Use back substitution to solve a system of linear
equations.
 Determine whether a system of linear equations is
consistent or inconsistent.
 Determine if a matrix is in row-echelon form or reduced
row-echelon form.
 Use element row operations with back substitution to
solve a system in row-echelon form.
 Use elimination to rewrite a system in row echelon form.

Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-2

 Chapter Objective (cont.)
 Write an augmented or coefficient matrix from a system
of linear equation, or translate a matrix into a system of
linear equations.
 Solve a system of linear equations using Gaussian
elimination with back-substitution.
 Solve a homogeneous system of linear equations.
 Set up and solve a system of linear equations to fit a
polynomial function to a set of data points, as well as to
represent a network.

Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-3

 1.1 Introduction
Linear Equations in n Variables
 A linear equations in n variables x1, x2, …, xn has the form:
a 1x 1 + a 2x 2 + … + a nx n = b
 Coefficients: a1, a2, …, an  real number
 Constant term: b  real number
 Leading Coefficient: a1
 Leading Variable: x1
 Linear equations have no products or roots of variables and
no variables involved in trigonometric, exponential or
logarithmic functions.
 Variables appear only to the first power.
Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-4
Section 1-1

Example 1
 Linear Equations:
3 x  2 y  7, x1  2 x 2  10 x 3  x 4  0,
True?
1
2
x  y  z  2 , (sin 2 ) x1  4 x 2  e 2 .
 Nonlinear Equations:
xy  z  2, Product of variables

e x  2 y  4, involved in exponential
sin x1  2 x 2  3x 3  0, involved in trigonometric
1
x
 1y  4. Not the first power

Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-5

Section 1-1

Example 2
Parametric Representation of a Solution Set
 Solve the linear equation x1 + 2x2 = 4
Sol: x1 = 4  2x2
Variable x2 is free (it can take on any real value).
Variable x1 is not free (its value depends on the value of x2).
By letting x2 = t (t: the third variable, parameter),
 x1  4  2t ,
 tR
you can represent the solution set as  x2  t ,

 Where t is any real number

Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-6
Section 1-1

Example 3
Parametric Representation of a Solution Set
 Solve the linear equation 3x + 2y  z = 3
Sol: Choosing y and z to be the free variables
 x  1  23 y  13 z.
Letting y = s and z = t, you obtain the parametric
representation
 x  1  23 s  13 t ,

 y  s, s, t  R Infinite number of solutions
 z  t.


Chapter 1 1-7
Section 1-1

Systems of Linear Equations

 A system of m linear equations in n variables is a set of
m equations, each of which is linear in the same n variables:
a11 x1  a12 x2  ...  a1n xn  b1
a21 x1  a22 x2  ...  a2 n xn  b2

am1 x1  am 2 x2  ...  amn xn  bm
 The double-subscript notation indicates that aij is the coefficient of xj in
the ith equation.
 A system of linear equations has exactly one solution, an infinite
number of solutions, or no solution.
 A system of linear equations is called consistent if it has at least one
solution and inconsistent if it has no solution.
1-8
Section 1-1

Example 4
Systems of two equations in two variables
 Solve the following systems of linear equations, and graph
each system as a pair of straight lines.
y
x  y  3 Two intersecting lines
(a )   x  1, y  2.
 x  y  1
y
x
 x y 3
(b )   x  3  t , y  t , t  R.
 2 x  2 y  6
y x

x  y  3 Two coincident lines

(c )   no solution
x  y  1 x Two parallel lines
Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-9
Section 1-1

Solving a system of linear equations

Row-echelon form: it follows a stair-step pattern and has


leading coefficient of 1.
 Using back-substitution to solve a system in row-echelon

form.
 Example 6.

x  2 y  3 z  9 Eq. 1 1. From Eq. 3 you already know the value of z.

y  3 z  5 Eq. 2 2. To solve for y, substitute z = 2 into Eq. 2 to
obtain y = 1.
z  2 Eq. 3 3. Substitute z = 2 and y = 1 into Eq. 1 to
obtain x = 1.

Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-10

Section 1-1

Equivalent Systems
 Two systems of linear equations are called equivalent if
they have precisely the same solution set.
 Each of the following operations on a system of linear
equations produces an equivalent system.
 1. Interchange two equations.

 2. Multiply an equation by a nonzero constant.

 3. Add a multiple of an equation to another equation.

 Gaussian elimination: Rewriting a system of linear

equations in row-echelon form usually involves a chain of
equivalent systems, each of each is obtained by using one
of the three basic operations.

Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-11

Section 1-1

Example 7
A system with exactly one solution x  2 y  3z  9
 x  3y  4
 Solve the system
2 x  5 y  5 z  17
Adding the first Adding –2 times the Adding the second
equation to the second first equation to the equation to the third
produces a new third equation equation produces a
second equation. produces a new third new third equation.
x  2 y  3z  9 equation.
x  2 y  3z  9 x  2 y  3z  9
y  3z  5 (2) y  3z  5 y  3z  5
2 x  5 y  5 z  17  y  z  1 2 z  4  (1/2)
The solution is x = 1, y = 1, and z = 2.
Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-12
Section 1-1

Example 8
x1  3 x 2  x 3  1 (2)
An Inconsistent System
2 x1  x 2  2 x 3  2
 Solve the system
x1  2 x 2  3 x 3  1
Adding –2 times the Adding –1 times the Adding –1 times the
first equation to the first equation to the 2nd equation to the
second produces a third produces a new 3rd produces a new
new second equation. third equation. 3rd equation.
x1  3x 2  x 3  1 x1  3x 2  x 3  1 x1  3x 2  x 3  1
5 x 2  4 x3  0 (1) 5 x 2  4 x3  0 5 x 2  4 x3  0
(1)
x1  2 x 2  3x 3  1 5 x 2  4 x 3  2 0  2
Because the third “equation” is a false statement, this system has no
solution. because this system is equivalent to the original system, you can
Moreover,
conclude that the original system also has no system.
Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-13
Section 1-1

Example 9
A system with an infinite number of solutions
x2  x3  0
 Solve the system
x1  3x3  1
 x1  3 x2 1
The first two equations Adding the first Adding –3 times the
are interchanged. equation to the third 2nd equation to the
produces a new third 3rd produces a new
equation. 3rd equation.
x1  3 x3  1 x1  3x3  1 x1  3 x3  1
x2  x3  0 x2  x3  0 x2  x3  0
(3)
 x1  3 x2 1 3 x2  3x3  0 0  0 unnecessary
 x1  1  3 x3  1  3t
Let x3 = t, t  R  
Ming-Feng Yeh  x2  x3  t Chapter 1 1-14
 1.2 Gaussain Elimination and
Gauss-Jordan Elimination
 a11 a12 a13  a1n 
Definition: Matrix a  a2 n 


 21 a 22 a23
If m and n are positive integers,  a31 a32 a33  a3 n 
then an mn matrix is a rectangular array  
     
am1 am 2 am3  a mn 
in which each entry, aij, of the matrix is a number.
 An mn matrix has m rows (horizontal lines) and n columns (vertical lines).
 The entry aij is located in the ith row and the jth column.
 A matrix with m rows and n columns (an mn matrix) is said to be of size mn.
 If m = n, the matrix is called square of order n.
 For a square matrix, the entries a11, a22, a33, … are called the main diagonal
entries.
Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-15
Section 1-2

Augmented/Coefficient Matrix
 The matrix derived from the coefficients and constant
terms of a system of linear equations is called the
augmented matrix of the system.
 The matrix containing only the coefficients of the system
is called the coefficient matrix of the system.
 System Augmented Matrix Coefficient Matrix
x y z const.
x  4 y  3z  5  1 4 3 5  1 4 3
 x  3 y  z  3  1   1  
 3  1  3   3 1 
2x  4z  6  2 0 4 6  2 0  4

Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-16

Section 1-2

Elementary Row Operations

 Interchange two rows.
 Multiply a row by a nonzero constant.
 Add a multiple of a row to another row.

Two matrices are said to be row-equivalent

if one can be obtained from the other by a finite
sequence of elementary row operations.

Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-17

Section 1-2

Example 3
 Using Elementary Row Operation to Solve a System
Linear System Associated Augmented matrix
x  2 y  3z  9  1 2 3 9 R2+R1R2
 x  3y  4  1 3 0  4 
 
2 x  5 y  5 z  17  2  5 5 17 
 1  2 3 9 R3+(2)R1R3  1  2 3 9
 0 1 3 5 (2)  0 1 3 5 R3+R2R3
2  5 5 17  0  1  1  1
 1  2 3 9 0.5R3R3  1  2 3 9 z  2
 0 1 3 5  0 1 3 5 y  3 z  5  y  1
0 0 2 4 0.5 0 0 1 2 x  2 y  3 z  9  x  1
Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-18
Section 1-2

Row-Echelon Form of a Matrix

A matrix in row-echelon form has the following properties.
 All rows consisting entirely of zeros occur at the bottom
of the matrix.
 For each row that does not consist entirely of zeros, the
first nonzero entry is 1 (called a leading 1).
 For two successive (nonzero) rows, the leading 1 in the
higher row is father to the left than the leading 1 in the
lower row.
Remark: A matrix in row-echelon form is in reduced row-
echelon form if every column that has a leading 1 has
zeros in every position above and below its leading 1.

Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-19

Section 1-2

Example 4
 In row-echelon form
1  5 2 1 3  1 0 0  1
0 1 0 5  
0 0 1 3 0 0 1 3  2 0 1 0 2
  0 0 0 1 4  0 0 1 3
0 0 0 0    
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
 Not in row-echelon form
1 2  3 4  1 2 1 2
0 2 1  1  0 0 0 0 
   
0 0 1  3 0 1 2  4

Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-20

Section 1-2

Gaussian Elimination with

Back-Substitution
 Write the augmented matrix of the system of
linear equations.
 Use elementary row operations to rewrite the
augmented matrix in row-echelon form.
 Write the system of linear equations
corresponding to the matrix in row-echelon form,
and use back-substitution to find the solution.

Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-21

Section 1-2 x4  3
x3  x 4  2  x3  1
x 2  x3  2 x 4  3  x 2  2
Example 5 x1  2 x 2  x3  2  x1  1
x 2  x 3  2 x 4  3
A system with exactly one solution x1  2 x2  x3  2
 Solve the system 2 x1  4 x2  x3  3 x4  2
x1  4 x2  7 x3  x4  19
0 1 1  2  3 1 2 1 0 2
1  0 1  2  3
2  1 0 2 (2)
  1
2 4 1  3  2 
2 4 1  3  2
   
 1  4  7  1  19   4  7  1  19
1
1 2 1 0 2 1 2 1 0 2
0  0
1 1  2  3 1 1  2  3
  
 6  0
0 0 3 3 6 0 3  3  6  (1 3)
   
 0  6  6  1  21 0 0 0  13  39  ( 1 13)
Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-22
Section 1-2

Example 6
x1  x2  2 x3  4
A system with no solution
x1  x3  6
 Solve the system 2 x1  3 x2  5 x3  4
3 x1  2 x2  x3  1
 1 1 2 4  1 1 2 4
1 0 (1)
 1 6 0 1  1 2 
(3) (2)  
2  1 5 4 0  1 1  4
   
3 2 1 1  0 5  7  11 
 1 1 2 4
0 1 1 2
  0 = 2 … ???
0 0 0  2
  The original system of linear equations
0 5  7  11 is inconsistent.
Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-23
Section 1-2

Gauss-Jordan Elimination
 Continues the reduction process until a reduced row-
echelon form is obtained.
 Example 7:
Use Gauss-Jordan elimination to solve the system
x  2 y  3z  9 In Ex. 3 1  2 3 9
2
 x  3y  4 0 1 3 5

2 x  5 y  5 z  17 0 0 1 2
 1 0 9 19 1 0 0 1 x 1
(9) 
 0 1 3 5  0 1 0  1   y  1
(3) z  2
0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2 

Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-24

Section 1-2

Example 8
 A System with an Infinite Number of Solutions
Solve the system of linear equations 2 x1  4 x2  2 x3  0
3 x1  5 x2 1
2 4  2 0  (1 2)  1 2  1 0  (3)
3 5    
 0 1 3 5 0 1
 1 2  1 0 1 0 5 2
    
0  1 3 1  (1) 0 1  3  1
 x1  2  5 x3  2  5t
Let x3 = t, t  R  
 x2  1  3 x3  1  3t

Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-25

Section 1-2

Homogeneous Systems of Linear

Equations
Each of the constant terms is zero.
a11 x1  a12 x2  a13 x3    a1n xn  0
a 21 x1  a 22 x2  a 23 x3    a 2 n xn  0
a31 x1  a32 x2  a33 x3    a3n xn  0

a m1 x1  a m 2 x2  a m 3 x3    a mn xn  0
 A homogeneous system must have at least one solution.
 Trivial (obvious) solution: all variables in a homogeneous
system have the value zero, then each of the equation must
be satisfied.

Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-26

Section 1-2

Example 9
x1  x2  3 x3  0
 Solve the system of linear equations
2 x1  x2  3 x3  0

 1  1 3 0  (1)  1 1 3 0
2   
 1 3 0 0 3  3 0  (1 3)
 1  1 3 0  1 0 2 0
   0 1  1 0 
0 1  1 0  (1)  
 x1  2 x3  2t
Let x3 = t, t  R  
 x2  x3  t

Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-27

Section 1-2

Theorem 1.1
The Number of Solutions of a Homogeneous System
 Every homogeneous system of linear equations is
consistent. Moreover, if the system has fewer
equations than variables, then it must have an
infinite number of solutions.

Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-28

 1.3 Applications of Systems of
Linear Equations
 Polynomial Curve Fitting
fit a polynomial function to
a set of data points in the plane.
 n points: ( x , y ), ( x , y ), ..., ( x , y )
1 1 2 2 n n
 Polynomial function:
p ( x )  a0  a1 x  a 2 x 2    a n 1 x n 1

 Network Analysis
focus on networks and Kirchhof’s Laws for electricity.

Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-29

Section 1-3

Network Analysis
 Networks composed of branches and junctions are used as
models in the fields as diverse as economics, traffic
analysis, and electrical engineering.
 The total flow into a junction is equal to the total flow out
of the junction.
 Example. x
1
25 x1  x2  25
x2

Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-30

Section 1-3

Example 5

 x1  x2  20 1 1 0 0 0 20
0  1 0  20
 x3  20  x4  0 1
 x2  x3  20 0 1 1 0 0 20
 
 x1  10  x5 1 0 0 0  1  10
 x5  10  x4 0 0 0  1 1  10
1 0 0 0 1  10 x5  t , t  R
0 1 0 0 1 30 x1  t  10

0 0 1 0 1  10 x2  t  30
  x3  t  10
0 0 0 1 1 10
0 0 0 0 0 0 x4  t  10
Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-31
Section 1-3

Kirchhoff’s Laws
 All the current flowing into a junction must flow
out of it. (KCL)
 The sum of the products IR (I is the current and
R is the resistance) around a closed path is equal
to the total voltage in the path. (KVL)
 A closed path is a sequence of branches such that the
beginning point of the first branch coincides with the
end point of the last branch.

Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-32

Section 1-3

Example 6

 or : I1  I 3  I 2
Path 1: R1 I1  R2 I 2  3I1  2 I 2  7
Path 2: R2 I 2  R3 I 3  2 I 2  4 I 3  8
 1  1 1 0  1 0 0 1
 3 2 0 7   0 1 0 2 
   
0 2 4 8 0 0 1 1
 I1  1 amp

  I 2  2 amp
 I  1 amp
 3
Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-33
Section 1-3

Example 7

See pp. 37-38

in the textbook

Ming-Feng Yeh Chapter 1 1-34