Chemistry

Unit 10:
Solutions
 Solution Definitions
solution: a homogeneous mixture
-- evenly mixed at the particle level
-- e.g., salt water

alloy: a solid solution of metals

-- e.g., bronze = Cu + Sn;
brass = Cu + Zn
solvent: the substance that dissolves the solute

e.g., water e.g., salt

soluble: “will dissolve in”

miscible: refers to two liquids that mix

evenly in all proportions
-- e.g., food coloring and water
 Factors Affecting the Rate of Dissolution

1. temperature As temp. , rate

2. particle size As size ,

rate

3. mixing With more mixing,

rate

4. nature of solvent or solute We can’t control

this factor.
 Classes of Solutions
aqueous solution: solvent = water
water = “the universal solvent”
amalgam: solvent = mercury
e.g., dental amalgam
tincture: solvent = alcohol
e.g., tincture of iodine (for cuts)
organic solution: solvent
carbon
contains ________
Organic solvents include
benzene, toluene, hexane, etc.
 Non-Solution Definitions

insoluble: “will NOT dissolve in”

e.g., sand and water

immiscible: refers to two liquids that

will NOT form a solution
e.g., water and oil

suspension: appears uniform while

being stirred, but
settles over time
e.g., liquid medications
 Molecular Polarity H
nonpolar molecules: H–C–H
-- e– are shared equally H–C–H
-- tend to be symmetric H–C–H
e.g., fats and oils H–C–H
H
polar molecules:
-- e– NOT shared equally H H
e.g., water O
“Like dissolves like.”
polar + polar = solution
nonpolar + nonpolar = solution
polar + nonpolar = suspension (won’t mix evenly)
 Using Solubility Principles

Chemicals used by body obey solubility principles.

-- water-soluble vitamins: e.g., vitamin C
-- fat-soluble vitamins: e.g., vitamins A & D

Anabolic steroids and HGH are

fat-soluble, synthetic hormones.
 Using Solubility Principles (cont.)

Dry cleaning employs nonpolar liquids.

-- polar liquids damage wool, silk

-- also, dry clean for stubborn stains

(ink, rust, grease)
-- tetrachloroethylene was in longtime use

Cl Cl
C=C
Cl Cl
emulsifying agent (emulsifier):
-- molecules w/both a polar AND a nonpolar end
-- allows polar and nonpolar substances to mix
e.g., soap eggs lecithin detergent

MODEL OF A SOAP MOLECULE

Na1+
NONPOLAR
POLAR HYDROCARBON
HEAD TAIL
 soap vs. detergent
-- made from animal -- made from petroleum
and vegetable fats -- works better in hard
water
Na1+
NONPOLAR
HYDROCARBON
POLAR HEAD
TAIL
Hard water contains minerals w/ions like Ca2+, Mg2+,
and Fe3+ that replace Na1+ at polar end of soap
molecule. Soap is changed into an insoluble H2O
precipitate (i.e., soap scum). H O
2

micelle: a liquid droplet covered oil

w
/soap or detergent molecules
H2O H2O
 SOLUBILITY
sudden stress CURVE
Solubility causes this
much ppt
KNO3 (s)
how much solute
dissolves in a given Solubility
KCl (s)
amt. of solvent at a (g/100 g
H2O)
given temp.
HCl (g)
Temp. (oC)
unsaturated: sol’n could hold more
solute; below the line
saturated: sol’n has “just right” amt.
of solute; on the line
supersaturated: sol’n has “too much” solute
dissolved in it; above the line
 Solids dissolved Gases dissolved
in liquids in liquids

Sol. [O2]
Sol.

To To
As To , As To ,
solubility ___ solubility ___
 Using an available solubility
curve, classify as
unsaturated, saturated,
or supersaturated.

80 g NaNO3 @ 30oC
unsaturated
per 100 g H2O

45 g KCl @ 60oC
saturated
30 g KClO3 @ 30oC
supersaturated
70 g Pb(NO3)2 @ 60oC
unsaturated
 (Unsaturated, saturated, or supersaturated?)
Per 500 g H2O,
100 g KNO3 @ 40oC

saturation point
@ 40oC for 100 g H2O
= 63 g KNO3
So saturation pt.
@ 40oC for 500 g H2O
= 5 x 63 g
= 315 g
100 g < 315 g
unsaturated
Describe each situation below.
(A) Per 100 g H2O,
100 g NaNO3 @ 50oC.
unsaturated;
all solute dissolves;
clear sol’n.
(B) Cool sol’n (A) very
slowly to 10oC.
supersaturated;
extra solute remains
in sol’n; still clear
(C) Quench sol’n (A) in
an ice bath to 10oC.
saturated; extra solute (20 g)
can’t remain in sol’n and becomes visible
 Glassware – Precision and Cost
beaker vs. volumetric flask
1000 mL + 5% 1000 mL + 0.30 mL
When filled to
1000 mL line,
how much liquid
is present?
WE DON’T KNOW.
5% of 1000 mL = 50 mL
Range:
Range:

min: 950 mL min: 999.70 mL

max: 1050 mL max: 1000.30 mL

imprecise; cheap precise; expensive

 water in mercury in
grad. cyl. grad. cyl.

measure to measure to
bottom top

** Measure to part of meniscus w/zero slope.

Concentration…a measure of solute-to-solvent ratio

concentrated dilute
“lots of solute” “not much solute”
“not much solvent” “watery”

Add water to dilute a sol’n;

boil water off to concentrate it.
 Selected units of concentration

A. mass % = mass of solute x 100

mass of sol’n

B. parts per million (ppm) = mass of solute x 106

mass of sol’n
 also, ppb and ppt
(Use 109 or 1012 here)
mol
-- commonly used for minerals or
contaminants in water supplies M L
C. molarity (M) = moles of solute
L of sol’n mol
M 
-- used most often in this class L
How many mol solute are req’d to make
1.35 L of 2.50 M sol’n? mol
mol = M L = 2.50 M (1.35 L ) M L
= 3.38 mol
A. What mass sodium hydroxide is this?
Na1+ OH1– NaOH
 40.0 g 
3.38 mol   = 135 g NaOH
 1 mol 
B. What mass magnesium phosphate is this?
Mg2+ PO43– Mg3(PO4)2
 262.9 g 
3.38 mol   = 889 g Mg3(PO4)2
 1 mol 
Find molarity if 58.6 g barium hydroxide are
in 5.65 L sol’n. Ba2+ OH1– mol
Ba(OH)2
 1 mol  M L
58.6 g   = 0.342 mol
 171.3 g 
mol 0.342 mol
M   = 0.061 M Ba(OH)2
L 5.65 L
You have 10.8 g potassium nitrate. How many mL
of sol’n will make this a 0.14 M sol’n? K1+ NO31–
 1 mol  KNO3
10.8 g   = 0.1068 mol
 101.1 g  (convert to mL)
mol 0.1068 mol  1000 mL 
L   = 0.763 L 
 1L 

M 0.14 M
= 763 mL
 Molarity and
m Stoichiometry m

V mol mol V
V of gases
at STP
P ML ML P
PbI2 V of sol’ns KI
1
__Pb(NO 2 (aq)  __PbI
3)2(aq) + __KI 1 2(s) + __KNO
2 3(aq)

What volume of 4.0 M KI sol’n is req’d to yield 89 g PbI2?

Strategy: (1) Find mol KI needed to yield 89 g PbI2.

(2) Based on (1), find volume of 4.0 M KI sol’n.

 1
__Pb(NO 2 (aq)  __PbI
3)2(aq) + __KI 1 2(s) + __KNO
2 3(aq)

What volume of 4.0 M KI sol’n is req’d to yield 89 g PbI2?

Strategy: (1) Find mol KI needed PbI2 KI

to yield 89 g PbI2.
(2) Based on (1), find volume
of 4.0 M KI sol’n.
ML ML
 1 mol PbI2   2 mol KI 
89 g PbI2    = 0.39 mol KI
 461 g PbI2   1 mol PbI2 
mol 0.39 mol KI
L  
M 4.0 M KI mol

= 0.098 L of 4.0 M KI M L
 Cu CuSO4
How many mL of a 0.500 M
CuSO4 sol’n will react w/excess Al3+ SO42–
Al to produce 11.0 g Cu?
ML ML
3
__CuSO 2
4(aq) + __Al(s) 3
 __Cu(s) 1 2(SO4)3(aq)
+ __Al

 1 mol Cu   3 mol CuSO 4 

11.0 g Cu   
 63.5 g Cu   3 mol Cu 
= 0.173 mol CuSO4
mol 0.173 mol CuSO 4
L  
M 0.500 M CuSO 4
 1000 mL 
mol
= 0.346 L  
 1 L 
M L
= 346 mL of 0.500 M CuSO4
 Dilutions of Solutions
Acids (and sometimes bases) are purchased in
concentrated form (“concentrate”) and are easily
diluted to any desired
concentration.

**Safety Tip:
When diluting, add acid
(or base) to water.

C = conc.
Dilution Equation: MC VC = MD VD
D = dilute
Conc. H3PO4 is 14.8 M. What volume of concentrate
is req’d to make 25.00 L of 0.500 M H 3PO4?
MC VC = MD VD

14.8 (VC) = 0.500 (25)

14.8 14.8
VC = 0.845 L

How would you mix the above sol’n?

1. Measure out _____
0.845 L of conc. H3PO4.
2. In separate container, obtain ____
~20 L of cold H 2O.
3. In fume hood, slowly pour H3PO4 into cold H2O.
4. Add enough H2O until 25.00 L of sol’n is obtained.
 Cost Analysis with Dilutions
2.5 L of 12 M HCl 0.500 L of
(i.e., “concentrate”) 0.15 M HCl

Cost: $25.71 Cost: $6.35

How many 0.500 L-samples of 0.15 m HCl can be

made from the bottle of concentrate?
MC VC = MD VD (Expensive water!)

12 M (2.5 L) = 0.500 M (VD) Moral:

Buy the concentrate
VD = 200 L and mix it yourself to
any desired concentration.

400 samples @ $6.35 ea. = $2,540

You have 75 mL of conc. HF (28.9 M); you need
15.0 L of 0.100 M HF. Do you have enough to do
the experiment?
MC VC = MD VD
28.9 M (0.075 L) = 0.100 M (15 L)

Calc. how much conc. you need…

28.9 M (VC) = 0.100 M (15 L)
VC = 0.052 L = 52 mL needed

Yes;
we’re OK.
 Dissociation occurs when neutral combinations of
particles separate into ions while in aqueous solution.

sodium chloride NaCl  Na1+ + Cl1–

sodium hydroxide NaOH  Na1+ + OH1–

hydrochloric acid HCl  H1+ + Cl1–

sulfuric acid H2SO4  2 H1+ + SO42–

acetic acid CH3COOH  CH3COO1– + H1+

acids yield hydrogen (H1+) ions in aque-

In general, _____
ous solution; bases
_____ yield hydroxide (OH 1–) ions.
Strong electrolytes exhibit nearly 100% dissociation.
NaCl Na1+ + Cl1–
NOT in water: 1000 0 0
in aq. sol’n: 1 999 999

Weak electrolytes exhibit little dissociation.

CH3COOH CH3COO1– + H1+
NOT in water: 1000 0 0
in aq. sol’n: 980 20 20

“Strong” or “weak” is a property of the substance.

We can’t change one into the other.
electrolytes: solutes that dissociate in sol’n
-- conduct elec. current because
of free-moving ions
-- e.g., acids,
bases,
most ionic compounds
-- are crucial for many
cellular processes
-- obtained in a healthy diet
-- For sustained exercise or
a bout of the flu, sports
drinks ensure adequate
electrolytes.
nonelectrolytes: solutes that DO NOT dissociate

-- DO NOT conduct elec.

current (not enough ions)

-- e.g., any type of sugar

 Colligative Properties

 properties that depend on the conc. of a sol’n

Compared to a sol’n w/that

solvent’s… solvent has a…

…normal freezing …lower FP

point (NFP) (freezing point depression)

…normal boiling …higher BP

point (NBP) (boiling point elevation)
 Applications of Colligative Properties
(NOTE: Data are fictitious.)

1. salting roads
in winter

FP BP
water 0oC (NFP) 100oC (NBP)
water + a little salt –11oC 103oC

water + more salt –18oC 105oC

Applications of Colligative Properties (cont.)

2. Antifreeze (AF)
(a.k.a., “coolant”)

FP BP
water 0oC (NFP) 100oC (NBP)
water + a little AF –10oC 110oC
50% water + 50% AF –35oC 130oC
Applications of Colligative Properties (cont.)

3. law enforcement

starts finishes
penalty, if
white powder melting melting
convicted
at… at…
comm.
A 120 C
o
150 Co
service
B 130oC 140oC 2 yrs.
C 134oC 136oC 20 yrs.
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