Engineering Geology

UNIT 2: DIRECT CURRENT RESISTIVITY METHODS (DC)
1.0 Introduction
The concepts of Resistivity and its corresponding definition as well as its properties
are very crucial to the study of geophysical survey. Simple observation of any physical
phenomena has made it imperative to be interested in how geophysical survey relies
on measurements of the voltages or magnetic fields associated with electric currents
flowing in the ground.
Electrical methods utilize direct currents or low frequency alternating currents to
investigate the electrical properties of subsurface, in contrast to the electromagnetic
methods that use alternating electromagnetic fields of higher frequency.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, readers should be able to:
(i) Understand clearly the Direct- Current Resistivity Methods especially its
definition and application
(ii) Understand the usefulness of metal electrodes, Non polarising electrodes
in application of DC Resistivity methods.
(iii) Know that DC surveys require current generators, voltmeters and
electrical contact with the ground.
(iv) show how artificially generated currents are introduced into the ground
and the resulting potential differences are measured at the surface.
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Direct Current Resistivity Methods
The currents used in surveys described as ‘direct currents’ or DC are seldom actually
unidirectional. Reversing the direction of flow allows the effects of unidirectional

natural currents to be eliminated by simply summing and averaging the results
obtained in the two directions. DC surveys require current generators, voltmeters and
electrical contact with the ground. Cables and electrodes are cheap but vital parts of all
systems, and it is with these that much of the noise is associated.
3.2 Metal electrodes
The electrodes used to inject current into the ground are nearly always metal stakes,
which in dry ground may have to be hammered into depths of more than 50 cm and be
watered to improve contact. Where contact is very poor, salt water and multiple stakes13
may be used. In extreme cases, holes may have to be blasted through highly resistive
caliche or laterite surface layers. Metal stake electrodes come in many forms. Lengths
of drill steel are excellent if the ground is stony and heavy hammering necessary.
Pointed lengths of angle-iron are only slightly less robust and have larger contact
areas. If the ground is soft and the main consideration is speed, large numbers of metal
tent pegs can be pushed in along a traverse line by an advance party.
• Problems can arise at voltage electrodes, because polarization voltages are generated
• wherever metals are in contact with the groundwater. However, the reversal of current
• flow that is routine in conventional DC surveys generally achieves acceptable levels of
• cancellation of these effects. Voltage magnitudes depend on the metals concerned.
• They are, for instance, small when electrodes are made of stainless steel.
• 3.3 Non-polarizing electrodes
• Polarization voltages are potentially serious sources of noise in SP surveys, which
• involve the measurement of natural potentials and in induced polarization (IP) surveys.
• In these cases, non-polarizing electrodes must be used. Their design relies on the fact
• that the one exception to the rule that a metallic conductor in contact with an
• electrolyte generates a contact potential occurs when the metal is in contact with a
• saturated solution of one of its own salts. Most non-polarizing electrodes consist of
• copper rods in contact with saturated solutions of copper sulphate. The rod is attached
• to the lid of a container or pot with a porous base of wood, or, more commonly,
• unglazed earthenware (Figure 1.4). Contact with the ground is made via the solution
• that leaks through the base. Some solid copper sulphate should be kept in the pot to
• ensure saturation and the temptation to ‘top up’ with fresh water must be resisted, as
• voltages will be generated if any part of the solution is less than saturated. The high
• resistance of these electrodes is not generally important because currents should not
• flow in voltage-measuring circuits.
• In induced polarization surveys it may very occasionally be desirable to use nonpolarizing current electrodes but not only does resistance then become a problem but
• also the electrodes deteriorate rapidly due to electrolytic dissolution and deposition of
• copper. Copper sulphate solution gets everywhere and rots everything and, despite
some theoretical advantages, non-polarizing electrodes are seldom used in routine DC
surveys.
3.4 Cables
The cables used in DC and IP surveys are traditionally single core, multi-strand copper
wires insulated by plastic or rubber coatings. Thickness is usually dictated by the need
for mechanical strength rather than low resistance, since contact resistances are nearly
always very much higher than cable resistance. Steel reinforcement may be needed for
long cables.14
Figure 1.4 Porous-pot non-polarizing electrodes designed to be pushed into
a shallow scraping made by a boot heel. Other types can be pushed into a
hole made by a crowbar or geological pick.
In virtually all surveys, at least two of the four cables will be long, and the good
practice in cable handling described in Section 3.3 is essential if delays are to be
avoided.
• Multicore cables that can be linked to multiple electrodes are becoming
• increasingly popular, since, once the cable has been laid out and connected up, a series
• of readings with different combinations of current and voltage electrodes can be made
• using a selector switch. Power lines can be sources of noise, and it may be necessary
• to keep the survey cables well away from their obvious or suspected locations. The
• 50 or 60 Hz power frequencies are very different from the 2 to 0.5 Hz frequencies at
• which current is reversed in most DC and IP surveys but can affect the very sensitive
• modern instruments, particularly in time-domain IP work. Happily, the results
• produced are usually either absurd or non-existent, rather than misleading.
• Cables are usually connected to electrodes by crocodile clips, since screw
• connections can be difficult to use and are easily damaged by careless hammer
• blows. Clips are, however, easily lost and every member of a field crew should
• carry at least one spare, a screwdriver and a small pair of pliers.
• 3.5 Generators and transmitters
• The instruments that control and measure current in DC and IP surveys are known as
• transmitters. Most deliver square wave currents, reversing the direction of flow with
• cycle times of between 0.5 and 2 seconds. The lower limit is set by the need to
• minimize inductive (electromagnetic) and capacitative effects, the upper by the need to15
• achieve an acceptable rate of coverage. Power sources for the transmitters may be dry
• or rechargeable batteries or motor generators. Hand-cranked generators (Meggers)
• have been used for DC surveys but are now very rare. Outputs of several kVA may be
• needed if current electrodes are more than one or two hundred metres apart, and the
• generators then used are not only not very portable but supply power at levels that can
• be lethal. Stringent precautions must then be observed, not only in handling the
• electrodes but also in ensuring the safety of passers-by and livestock along the whole
• lengths of the current cables. In at least one (Australian) survey, a serious grass fire
• was caused by a poorly insulated time-domain IP transmitter cabl1.0 Introduction
In this unit, you will be introduced to the basic concept of Electric Current Methods.
Basic Electrical Properties Associated with Rocks is the first topic or Concept you are
required to study in this course. There are reasons among others why electrical
current
method should be first topic to study in this course
Several electrical properties of rocks and minerals are significant in electrical
prospecting. They are natural electrical potentials, electrical conductivity, or the
inverse electrical resistivity, and the dielectric constant. Of these, electrical
conductivity is the most important, while others are of minor importance. Certain
natural or spontaneous potential occurring in the subsurface are caused by
electrochemical or chemical activity. The controlling factor is underground water

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UNIT 2: DIRECT CURRENT RESISTIVITY METHODS (DC)

phenomena has made it imperative to be interested in how geophysical survey relies

on measurements of the voltages or magnetic fields associated with electric currents

flowing in the ground.

Electrical methods utilize direct currents or low frequency alternating currents to

investigate the electrical properties of subsurface, in contrast to the electromagnetic

methods that use alternating electromagnetic fields of higher frequency.

At the end of this unit, readers should be able to:

definition and application

(ii) Understand the usefulness of metal electrodes, Non polarising electrodes

in application of DC Resistivity methods.

(iii) Know that DC surveys require current generators, voltmeters and

electrical contact with the ground.

and the resulting potential differences are measured at the surface.

3.0 Main Contents

3.1 Direct Current Resistivity Methods

unidirectional. Reversing the direction of flow allows the effects of unidirectional

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