Conventional Flow measurement

By
Dr. M. S. Rao
 Outline of presentation
• Purpose
• Broad classification

2
 Flow metering
• Purpose of Measurement of flow rate and
flow quantity of materials
– To determine the proportions of materials
introduced to a manufacturing process
– To determine Amount of materials evolved by
the process
– To determine cost accounting, usually for
steam and water services

3
 Flow of fluids in closed pipes
• Head meter
– Most common
– Operates by measuring the pressure
differential across a suitable restriction to flow
• Area meters
– operates from the variation in area of the fluid
stream

4
 Flow of fluids in closed pipes
• Velocity meters
– Used to measure flow rates
• Quantity meters
– To measure the quantity of fluid passed at a
given point
– the time integral of flow rate

5
 Flow of fluids in open channels
• Weirs
– Rectangular notch
– Canal flow behind our college
• Hydraulic flumes
– ???

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Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics
• Archimedes
• Torricelli
• Pascal
• Euler
• Bernoulli
• Stokes
• Reynolds
• Prandtl
7
 Flow measurement
• Is the quantification of bulk movement of
– Liquid
– Gas
• Symbols are used.
– Volumetric flow rate the symbol Q
– Mass flow rate the symbol w
• It can be measured in a variety of ways.
8
 Units of measurement
• Standard cubic centimeters per minute (sccm)
• The SI standard would be m3/s
– (with any appropriate prefix, with temperature and pressure
specified).
• The term "standard" indicates fixed temperature and
pressure
• Standard cubic feet per minute (CFM)
• Standard cubic feet per second(CFS)
• Gallons (U.S. liquid or imperial) per minute
• Liters per second (LPS)
• Acre-feet per day
9
 Piston meters – Mechanical Flow
Meters
• Piston meters
– Semi-Positive displacement meters
– For almost all meter sizes up to and including 40
mm (1 1/2").
• Operates on the principle of
– a piston moving within a chamber of known
volume.
• For each rotation, an amount of water passes
through the piston chamber
10
 Head Meters
• In the variable head meters
– The area of constriction or orifice is constant
– Drop in pressure is dependent on the rate of
flow
– Commonly used in closed channels
– You learnt in fluid mechanics

11
Venturi Meter

12
 Principle of Venturi Meter
• Variation in flow area causes pressure
variation
• At throat velocity increase at the expense of
the pressure head,
• Pressure drop is measured by a manometer.
• Bernoulli's equation provides the basis
– correlates the increase in velocity head with the
decrease in pressure head

13
 Venturi Meter
• Converging section
– Fluid is accelerated through a converging cone
– Converging angle 15-20o.
• Differential pressure is measured
– upstream end of the cone and the throat.
• Diverging section
– Cone of smaller angle (5-7o)
– large proportion of kinetic energy is converted back to pressure
energy
• Flow area is a minimum at the throat
– The coefficient of contraction is unity.

14
 Venturi Tube
• Differential pressure measured
– pressure differential related to the flow rate
• Ventury construction in general
– The venturi tube is made of cast iron or steel
– the throat is made of bronze
– it can be easily replaced
– Very large venturi tubes may be made of smooth
poured concrete
• The diameter ratio of the venturi tube
– Ratio of the throat diameter to the pipe-line diameter
– Usually varies between 0.25 and 0.5

15
 Ventury meter
• The dis/advantage
– It has high energy recovery
– it may be used even if small pressure head is available
– its construction is expensive.
• How to make the pressure recovery large
– Angle of downstream cone should be made small
– Boundary layer separation is prevented and friction minimized.
• Material conservation
– Separation does not occur in a contracting cross section
– Upstream cone can be made shorter than the downstream cone
– Causes no note worthy increase in friction
– space and material can be conserved.
16
 Venturi meters
• venturi meter Uses
– Most commonly used for liquids
– can be applied to the measurement of gas
• For incompressible fluids.
– writing the Bernoulli equation between the two
sections a and b.
– Friction is neglected
– the meter is assumed to be horizontal.
17
• Although venturi meters can be applied to
the measurement of gas, they are most
commonly used for liquids. The following
treatment is limited to incompressible fluids.
• The basic equation for the venturi meter is
obtained by writing the Bernoulli equation
for incompressible fluids between the two
sections a and b. Friction is neglected, the
meter is assumed to be horizontal.
• If va and vb are the average upstream and
downstream velocities, respectively, and r is
the density of the fluid,
• vb2 - va2 = 2(pa - pb)g/r (1) 18
• The continuity equation can be written as,
• va = (Db/Da)2vb = b2vb (2)
• where Da = diameter of pipe
• Db = diameter of throat of meter
• b = diameter ratio, Db/Da
• If va is eliminated from equn.1 and 2, the result is
q = (Cv/{1-b4}0.5)Ab(2g/r[pa – pb])0.5 (3)
• To account for the small friction loss between
locations a and b, equn.3 is corrected by introducing
an empirical factor Cv. The coefficient Cv is
determined experimentally. It is called the venturi
coefficient, velocity of approach not included. 19
• The effect of the approach velocity v a is
accounted by the term 1/(1-b4)0.5. When Db is
less than Da/4, the approach velocity and the
term b can be neglected, since the resulting
error is less than 0.2 percent.
• For a well designed venturi, the constant C v is
about 0.98 for pipe diameters of 2 to 8 inch
and about 0.99 for larger sizes.
• In a properly designed venturi meter, the
permanent pressure loss is about 10% of the
venturi differential (pa - pb), and 90% of
differential is recovered. 20
• Volumetric flow rate:
• The velocity through the venturi throat v b
usually is not the quantity desired. The flow
rates of practical interest are the mass and
volumetric flow rates through the meter.
• Volumetric flow rate is calculated from,
• Q = rAbvb and mass flow rate from,
• Mass flow rate = volumetric flow rate x density
• The standard dimensions for the meter are:
• Entrance cone angle (α1) = 21+ 2o
• Exit cone angle (α2) = 5 to 15o
• Throat length = one throat diameter 21
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Venturi
Meters
• The venturi meter described earlier is a
reliable flow measuring device. Furthermore,
it causes little pressure loss. For these reasons
it is widely used, particularly for large-volume
liquid and gas flows.
• However this meter is relatively complex to
construct and hence expensive. Especially for
small pipelines, its cost seems prohibitive, so
simpler devices such as orifice meters are
used.
22
 Venturi Meter
• Single disadvantage – high cost
• Highest accuracy of all pressure-differential flow
elements
• High reproducibililty
• Permanent pressure loss much lower than orifice meter
• Less subject to wear and abrasion and less likely to
become clogged with sediment
• Venturi tube can be employed for measurement of
extremely high water-flow rates (5,000,000 gal per hr)

23
Orifice Meter

24
• The orifice meter consists of a flat orifice
plate with a circular hole drilled in it.
• There is a pressure tap upstream from the
orifice plate and another just downstream.
There are three recognized methods of
placing the taps.
• And the coefficient of the meter will
depend upon the position of taps.

25
Type of tap Distance of Distance of
upstream tap downstream tap
from face of from
orifice downstream face

Flange 1 inch 1 inch

Vena contracta 1 pipe diameter 0.3 to 0.8 pipe

(actual inside) diameter,
depending on b
Pipe 2.5 times nominal 8 times nominal
pipe diameter pipe diameter
26
• The principle of the orifice meter is identical
with that of the venturi meter. The reduction of
the cross section of the flowing stream in
passing through the orifice increases the
velocity head at the expense of the pressure
head, and the reduction in pressure between the
taps is measured by a manometer. Bernoulli's
equation provides a basis for correlating the
increase in velocity head with the decrease in
pressure head

27
• where b = Db/Da = (Ab/Aa)0.5
• One important complication appears in the orifice
meter that is not found in the venturi. The area of
flow decreases from Aa at section 'a' to cross
section of orifice opening (Ao) at the orifice and
then to Ab at the vena contracta.
• The area at the vena contracta can be conveniently
related to the area of the orifice by the coefficient
of contraction Cc defined by the relation:
• Cc = A b / A o
• Therefore, vbAb = voAo , i.e., vo = vbCc
28
• Inserting the value of Ab = CcAo in equn.1

• using the coefficient of discharge C o (orifice

coefficient) to take the account of frictional
losses in the meter and the parameter C c, the
flow rate (Q) through the pipe is obtained as,

29
• Co varies considerably with changes in Ao/Aa
ratio and Reynolds number. A orifice
coefficient (Co) of 0.61 may be taken for the
standard meter for Reynolds numbers in
excess of 104, though the value changes
noticeably at lower values of Reynolds
number.
• Orifice pressure recovery:
• Permanent pressure loss depends on the value
of b. (b = Do/Da). For a value of b = 0.5, the
lost head is about 73% of the orifice
differential. 30
 Venturi meter - Orifice meter Comparison
• In comparing the Venturi meter with the orifice
meter, both the cost of installation and the cost of
operation must be considered.
• The orifice plate can easily be changed to
accomodate widely different flow rates, whereas the
throat diameter of a venturi is fixed, so that its
range of flow rates is confined by the practical
limits of Dp.
• The orifice meter has a large permanent loss of
pressure because of the presence of eddies on the
downstream side of the orifice-plate; the shape of
the venturi meter prevents the formation of these
eddies and greatly reduces the permanent loss.
31
• The orifice is cheap and easy to install. The
venturi meter is expensive, as it must be carefully
proportioned and fabricated. A home made orifice
is often entirely satisfactory, whereas a venturi
meter is practically always purchased from an
instrument dealer.
• On the other hand, the head lost in the orifice for
the same conditions as in the venturi is many
times greater. The power lost is proportionally
greater, and, when an orifice is inserted in a line
carrying fluid continuously over long periods of
time, the cost of the power may be out of all
proportion to the saving in first cost.
32
• Orifices are therefore best used for testing
purposes or other cases where the power
lost is not a factor, as in steam lines.
• However, in spite of considerations of
power loss, orifices are widely used,
partly because of their greater flexibility,
because installing a new orifice plate with
a different opening is a simpler matter.
The venturi meter can not be so altered.
Venturi meters are used only for
permanent installations. 33
• It should be noted that for a given pipe
diameter and a given diameter of orifice
opening or venturi throat, the reading of
the venturi meter for a given velocity is to
the reading of the orifice as (0.61/0.98)2,
or 1:2.58.(i.e. orifice meter will show
higher manometer reading for a given
velocity than venturi meter).

34
Pitot tube

35
• The pitot tube is a device to measure the local
velocity along a streamline. The pitot tube has
two tubes: one is static tube(b), and another is
impact tube(a).
• It consists of two concentric tubes arranged
parallel to the direction of flow; the impact
pressure is measured on the open end of the
inner tube. The end of the outer concentric
tube is sealed and a series of orifices on the
curved surface give an accurate indication of
the static pressure.
• For the flow rate not to be appreciably
disturbed, the diameter of the instrument must
not exceed about one fifth of the diameter of
the pipe. 36
• An accurate measurement of the impact pressure can
be obtained using a tube of very small diameter with
its open end at right angles to the direction of flow;
hypodermic tubing is convenient for this purpose.
• The opening of the impact tube is perpendicular to
the flow direction. The opening of the static tube is
parallel to the direction of flow. The two legs are
connected to the legs of a manometer or equivalent
device for measuring small pressure differences.
• The static tube measures the static pressure, since
there is no velocity component perpendicular to its
opening. The impact tube measures both the static
pressure and impact pressure (due to kinetic energy).
37
• In terms of heads the impact tube measures the static
pressure head plus the velocity head.
• The reading (hm) of the manometer will therefore
measure the velocity head, and
• v2/2g = Pressure head measured indicated by the
pressure measuring device

…………..(i)
• i.e. v2/2 = Dp/r
• Pressure difference indicated by the manometer D p is
given by,
• Dp = hm(rm - r)g
38
• Pressure difference indicated by the manometer D p is
given by,

• Dp = hm(rm - r)g
• The pitot tube measures the velocity of only a
filament of liquid, and hence it can be used for
exploring the velocity distribution across the pipe
cross-section. If, however, it is desired to measure the
total flow of fluid through the pipe, the velocity must
be measured at various distance from the walls and
the results integrated. The total flow rate can be
calculated from a single reading only of the velocity
distribution across the cross-section is already known.
• A perfect pitot tube should obey equn.1 exactly, but
all actual instruments must be calibrated and a
correction factor applied. 39
 Variable area meters – Rotameter

• In the variable head meters the area of

constriction or orifice is constant and the drop in
pressure is dependent on the rate of flow. In the
variable area meter, the drop in pressure is
constant and the flow rate is a function of the area
of constriction. 40
• A typical meter of this kind, which is commonly
known as rotameter consists of a tapered glass
tube with the smallest diameter at the bottom.
• The tube contains a freely moving float which
rests on a stop at the base of the tube. When the
fluid is flowing the float rises until its weight is
balanced by the upthrust of the fluid, the float
reaches a position of equilibrium, its position then
indicating the rate of flow.
• The flow rate can be read from the adjacent scale,
which is often etched on the glass tube. The float
is often stabilized by helical grooves incised into
it, which introduce rotation - hence the name.
Other shapes of the floats - including spheres in
the smaller instruments may be employed. 41
• The pressure drop across the float is equal to
its weight divided by its maximum cross-
sectional area in the horizontal plane. The area
for flow is the annulus formed between the
float and the wall of the tube.

42
• This meter may thus be considered as an orifice meter
with a variable aperture, and the formula derived for
orifice meter / venturi meter are applicable with only
minor changes.
• Both in the orifice-type meter and in the rotameter the
pressure drop arises from the conversion of pressure
energy to kinetic energy (recall Bernoulli's equation)
and from frictional losses which are accounted for in
the coefficient of discharge.
• Dp/(rg) = u22/(2g) - u12/(2g) ……….(i)
• Continuity equation:
A u = A u ………………(ii)
1 1 2 2

• Where A1 is the tube cross-section, and A2 is the

cross-section of annulus (area between the tube and
float)
43
• From equn.1 and 2,

…………..(iii)

• The pressure drop over the float Dp, is given by:

Dp = V (r - r)g / A ………………(iv)
f f f

• where V is the volume of the float, r the density of

f f

the material of the float, and A is the maximum cross

f

sectional area of the float in a horizontal plane.

44
• Substituting for Dp from equn.4 in equn.3, and for
the flow rate the equation is arrived as

• The coefficient CD depends on the shape of the float

and the Reynolds number (based on the velocity in
the annulus and the mean hydraulic diameter of the
annulus) for the annular space of area A2.
• In general, floats which give the most nearly constant
coefficient are of such a shape that they set up eddy
currents and give low values of CD.
45
• The constant coefficient for the float C arises
from turbulence promotion, and for this reason
the coefficient is also substantially
independent of the fluid viscosity. The meter
can be made relatively insensitive to changes
in the density of the fluid by the selection of
the density of float, rf. If the density of the
float is twice that of the fluid, then the position
of the float for a given float is independent of
the fluid density.
• Because of variable-area flowmeter relies on
gravity, it must be installed vertically (with the
flowtube perpendicular to the floor).
46
• The range of a meter can be increased by the
use of floats of different densities. For high
pressure work the glass tube is replaced by a
metal tube. When a metal tube is used or when
the liquid is very dark or dirty an external
indicator is required.
• The advantage of rotameters are direct visual
readings, wide range, nearly linear scale, and
constant (and small) head loss. It requires no
straight pipe runs before and after the meter.

47
 Notches and Weirs
Elementary theory of Notches and Weirs:
• A notch is an opening in the side of a measuring tank
or reservoir extending above the free surface.
• A weir is a notch on a large scale, used, for example,
to measure the flow of a river, and may be sharp
edged or have a substantial breadth in the direction of
flow.
• The method of determining the theoretical flow
through a notch is the same as that adopted for a large
orifice.
48
• For a notch of any shape shown in figure, consider a
horizontal strip of width b at a depth h below the
free surface and height dh.
• Area of strip = bdh.
• Velocity through strip = (2gh)0.5
• Discharge through strip, dQ = Area x velocity = bdh
(2gh) 0.5.
• Integrating from h = 0 at the free surface to h = H at
the bottom of the notch, 49

•
 ………(i)

• Before the integration of equn.1 can be carried

out, b must be expressed in terms of h.
Rectangular Notch:
• For a rectangular notch, put b = constant = B
in equn.1 giving,

50
 V-Notch:
For a V-notch with an included angle q,
put b = 2(H-h)tan(q/2) in equn.1, giving

i.e.,

……………(iii) 51
• Inspection of equns.2 and 3 suggests that, by choosing
a suitable shape for the sides of the notch, any desired
relationship between Q and H could be achieved.
• As in the case of orifice, the actual discharge through
a notch or weir can be found by multiplying the
theoretical discharge by a coefficient of discharge to
allow for energy losses and the contraction of the
cross-section of the stream at the bottom and sides.
• In the forgoing theory, it has been assumed that the
velocity of the liquid approaching the notch is very
small so that its kinetic energy can be neglected; it
can also be assumed that the velocity through any
horizontal element across the notch will depend only
on its depth below the free surface.
52
• This is a satisfactory assumption for flow over a
notch or weir in the side of a large reservoir, but, if
the notch or weir is placed at the end of a narrow
channel, the velocity of approach to the weir will
be substantial and the head h producing flow will
be increased by the kinetic energy of the
approaching liquid to a value
x = h + v12/(2g),
• where v1 is the mean velocity of the liquid in the
approach channel. Note that the value of v1 is
obtained by dividing the discharge by the full
cross sectional area of the channel itself, not that
of the notch. As a result, the discharge through the
strip will be
• dQ = bdh (2gx)0.5. 53
 Coefficient of Discharge for Rectangular Weir:

• Coefficient of discharge for rectangular weir given by

Rehbock is,
• Where P is the height of weir crest in meter.
• H is the head over crest in meter.
• The above equation is valid for P from 0.1 to 1.0 m
and H from 0.024 to 0.6 m.
54
 Suppressed weirs:
• When the length of crest of the weir is same as
the width of the channel, the weir is said to be
suppressed weir. Thus in this case, the effects
of sides of the weir is eliminated or suppressed.
Thus for suppressed weirs, length of weir crest
= width of channel.
Contracted weirs:
• When the crest length of a rectangular weir is
less than the width of the channel, there will be
lateral contraction.
• Flow rate (Q) for contracted rectangular weirs
is estimated from, 55
• Flow rate (Q) for contracted rectangular weirs
is estimated from Where n is the number of
contractions.

• n = 0 if the notch is full width of the channel;

• n = 1 if the notch is narrower than the channel
but is arranged with one edge coincident with
the edge of the channel;
• n = 2 if the notch is narrower than the channel
and is situated symmetrically.,
56
• Submerged weir:
• When the water on the downstream side of a weir
rises above the level of the crest, the weir is said to be
a submerged weir.

• The flow over the submerged weir may be considered

by dividing the flow into two portions:
• Flow over the upper part of the line AB may be
considered as weir flow (H1-H2). (Flow rate Q1)
57
• The flow over the submerged weir may be
considered by dividing the flow into two
portions:
• Flow over the upper part of the line AB may
be considered as weir flow (H1-H2). (Flow
rate Q1)
• Flow through the remaining depth H2 may be
considered as discharge through a submerged
orifice. (flow rate Q2)
• Q1 = (2/3)Cd1B(H1-H2)3/2 (2g)0.5
• Q2 = Cd2BH2 (2g(H1-H2))0.5
• Total flow rate Q = Q1 + Q2
58
 Trapezoidal Notch:

• The equation for flow through trapezoidal

notch is obtained from the equations for
rectangular and V-notches.

59
Thank you