Introduction to

Nondestructive Testing
(NDT)
DR. ABDUL BASIT
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF GUJRAT.
 Learning Objectives
After completion of this section, you will be able to:
Comprehend the idea of nondestructive testing and its
benefits
Comparison of nondestructive testing with destructive testing
Need for non-destructive testing
Overview of six most common NDT methods
Selected applications

2
 What is NDT
“NDT (non-destructive testing) refers to an array of inspection
techniques that allow inspectors to collect data about a material
without damaging it.”
It refers to an array of inspection methods that allow inspectors to
evaluate and collect data about a material, system, or component
without permanently altering it.
NDT may also be called:
NDE - Non-destructive examination or evaluation
NDI - Non-destructive inspection

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 What is NDT
In the field, NDT is often used as an umbrella term to refer to non-
destructive inspection methods, inspection tools, or even the entire
field of non-destructive inspections.
For commercial application, the goal of NDT is to ensure that critical
infrastructure is properly maintained in order to avoid catastrophic
accidents.
While NDT methods are typically associated with industrial use cases,
like inspecting weak points in a boiler used at an oil refinery, uses in
medicine are actually some of the most common.
For example, an expecting mother getting an ultrasound to check on
the health of her baby would be considered an NDT use case, as would
getting an X-ray or MRI to learn more about an injury.

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 What is NDT
But it’s important to note that NDT does not necessarily require the
use of special tools, or any tools at all.
For instance, when inspectors in industrial settings review the outside
of a pressure vessel with their naked eye, that would fall under the NDT
designation, since they are collecting data on the status of the boiler
without damaging it.
On the other hand, using a sophisticated tool like an ultrasonic sensor
to look for defects in a certain material or asset would also be called
NDT.
Regardless of the specific use case, the underlying commonality among
all these examples is the collection of data in a non-intrusive manner.

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 Destructive vs. Non-destructive testing
Before we go any further, we should clarify that there are some
methods used to test materials that alter—or even damage and
destroy—the materials tested.
The use of these methods is called Destructive Testing.
In Destructive Testing, a piece of the material might be scraped away
for analysis or altered in some way onsite.
Here are some examples:
Macro Sectioning
Macro sectioning tests a small section of a welded material by
polishing and etching it for examination.

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Tensile Testing
Also called tension testing, this is a
destructive testing technique that
uses controlled tension applied to a
sample material to see how it reacts.
Tension could be applied to test
certain loads or conditions, or to test
a material’s failure point.
Point Bend Testing
Point bend testing examines the
soundness and flexibility (or ductility)
of a material by taking a sample of it,
called a coupon, and bending it in
three points to a specified angle.

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 Why NDT?
When it comes to ensuring that assets are properly maintained, the
importance of non-destructive testing cannot be over emphasized.
Here are the top reasons NDT is used by so many companies
throughout the world:
Savings: The most obvious answer to this question is that NDT is more
appealing than destructive testing because it allows the material or
object being examined to survive the examination unharmed, thus
saving money and resources.
Safety: NDT is also appealing because almost all NDT techniques
(except radiographic testing) are harmless to people.
Efficiency: NDT methods allow for the thorough and relatively quick
evaluation of assets, which can be crucial for ensuring continued safety
and performance on a job site.

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 Why NDT?
Accuracy: NDT methods have been proven accurate and predictable,
both qualities you want when it comes to maintenance procedures
meant to ensure the safety of personnel and the longevity of
equipment.
"NDT is the life blood of a well-run facility, and the high importance of
NDT is known by any trained inspector. NDT techniques and
repeatable results depend on highly trained technicians with
experience and integrity. Not only does the technician need to be
certified in a specific NDT method, but they also need to know how to
operate the equipment being used to gather data. Understanding
equipment capabilities and limitations is the difference between
making an accept or reject determination.“
Jason Acerbi, General Manager at MFE Inspection Solutions,
"Your One Stop Inspection Source"

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NDT Test
Methods
 NDT Test Methods
Test method names often refer to Neutron Radiographic Testing (NR),
the type of penetrating medium or
the equipment used to perform that Radiographic Testing (RT),

test. Thermal/Infrared Testing (IR),
Current NDT methods are: Ultrasonic Testing (UT),
Acoustic Emission Testing (AE), Vibration Analysis (VA) and
Electromagnetic Testing (ET), Visual Testing (VT).
Laser Testing Methods (LM), The six most frequently used test
Leak Testing (LT), methods are MT, PT, RT, UT, ET and
VT.
Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL),
Each of these test methods will be
Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT), described here, followed by the
other, less often used test methods.
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT),
 Magnetic Particle Testing
(MT)
Magnetic Particle Testing uses one or more magnetic fields to locate
surface and near-surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials.
The magnetic field can be applied with a permanent magnet or an
electromagnet.
When using an electromagnet, the field is present only when the
current is being applied.
When the magnetic field encounters a discontinuity transverse to the
direction of the magnetic field, the flux lines produce a magnetic flux
leakage field of their own as shown in Figure 1.
 Magnetic Particle Testing
(MT)
Because magnetic flux lines don't travel well in air, when very fine
colored ferromagnetic particles ("magnetic particles") are applied to
the surface of the part the particles will be drawn into the
discontinuity, reducing the air gap and producing a visible indication on
the surface of the part.
The magnetic particles may be a dry powder or suspended in a liquid
solution, and they may be colored with a visible dye or a fluorescent
dye that fluoresces under an ultraviolet ("black") light.

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 Magnetic Particle Testing
(MT)
 MT Techniques
Yokes
Most field inspections are performed
using a Yoke, as shown in figure 2.
As shown in Figure 2(a), an electric
coil is wrapped around a central
core, and when the current is
applied, a magnetic field is generated
that extends from the core down
through the articulated legs into the
part.

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 Magnetic Particle Testing
(MT)
This is known as longitudinal magnetization because the magnetic flux
lines run from one leg to the other.
When the legs are placed on a ferromagnetic part and the yoke is
energized, a magnetic field is introduced into the part as shown in
figure 2(b).
Because the flux lines do run from one leg to the other, discontinuities
oriented perpendicular to a line drawn between the legs can be found.
To ensure no indications are missed, the yoke is used once in the
position shown then used again with the yoke turned 90o so no
indications are missed.
Because all of the electric current is contained in the yoke and only the
magnetic field penetrates the part, this type of application is known as
indirect induction.

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Prods
Prod units use direct induction, where
the current runs through the part and a
circular magnetic field is generated
around the legs as shown in Figure 3.
Because the magnetic field between the
prods is travelling perpendicular to a line
drawn between the prods, indications
oriented parallel to a line drawn between
the prods can be found.
As with the yoke, two inspections are
done, the second with the prods oriented
90o to the first application.

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Coils
Electric coils are used to generate a
longitudinal magnetic field.
When energized, the current
creates a magnetic field around the
wires making up the coil so that the
resulting flux lines are oriented
through the coil as shown at the
right.
Because of the longitudinal field,
indications in parts placed in a coil
are oriented transverse to the
longitudinal field.

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 Visual Testing (VT)
Visual testing is the most commonly used test method in industry.
As the name implies, VT involves the visual observation of the surface
of a test object to evaluate the presence of surface discontinuities.
VT inspections may be by Direct Viewing, using line-of sight vision, or
may be enhanced with the use of optical instruments such as
magnifying glasses, mirrors, borescopes, charge-coupled devices
(CCDs) and computer-assisted viewing systems (Remote Viewing).
Corrosion, misalignment of parts, physical damage and cracks are just
some of the discontinuities that may be detected by visual
examinations.

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 Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic testing uses the same principle as is used in naval SONAR and
fish finders.
Ultra-high frequency sound is introduced into the part being inspected
and if the sound hits a material with a different acoustic impedance
(density and acoustic velocity), some of the sound will reflect back to the
sending unit and can be presented on a visual display.
By knowing the speed of the sound through the part (the acoustic
velocity) and the time required for the sound to return to the sending
unit, the distance to the reflector (the indication with the different
acoustic impedance) can be determined.
The most common sound frequencies used in UT are between 1.0 and
10.0 MHz, which are too high to be heard and do not travel through air.
The lower frequencies have greater penetrating power but less
sensitivity (the ability to "see" small indications), while the higher
frequencies don't penetrate as deeply but can detect smaller indications.
 Ultrasonic Testing
The two most commonly used
types of sound waves used in
industrial inspections are the
compression (longitudinal) wave
and the shear (transverse) wave, as
shown in Figure .
Compression waves cause the
atoms in a part to vibrate back and
forth parallel to the sound
direction and shear waves cause
the atoms to vibrate
perpendicularly (from side to side)
to the direction of the sound.
Shear waves travel at
approximately half the speed of
longitudinal waves.
 Ultrasonic Testing
Sound is introduced into the part using an ultrasonic transducer
("probe") that converts electrical impulses from the UT machine into
sound waves, then converts returning sound back into electric impulses
that can be displayed as a visual representation on a digital or LCD
screen (on older machines, a CRT screen).
If the machine is properly calibrated, the operator can determine the
distance from the transducer to the reflector, and in many cases, an
experienced operator can determine the type of discontinuity (like slag,
porosity or cracks in a weld) that caused the reflector.
Because ultrasound will not travel through air (the atoms in air
molecules are too far apart to transmit ultrasound), a liquid or gel
called "couplant" is used between the face of the transducer and the
surface of the part to allow the sound to be transmitted into the part.
 Ultrasonic Testing Methods
There are three main types of ultrasonic testing methods:
1. Through transmission
Through transmission employs two transducers, each placed on opposite sides of the
material being tested.
One of the transducers creates a pulse and the other receives it.
If there is a disruption in the pulse, inspectors will know a defect is present in the
path between the two transducers.
2. Pulse echo
Pulse echo is more sensitive than through transmission.
It is used to identify defects by measuring the time it takes amplitude signals to travel
between different points or surfaces in a material.
3. Resonance
Resonance is similar to pulse echo, except that with resonance testing the regularity
of transmission can be changed.
Resonance testing is primarily used when only one side of a material can be accessed.
 Where Is Ultrasonic Testing Used?
The basic principle of ultrasonic testing is the use of sound to inspect a material’s
thickness at different points.
Ultrasonic thickness measurements can help inspectors find defects such as tiny
cracks, gaps, corrosion, or other flaws in materials that are too minute to be seen
by other NDT methods.
It can also be used to find corrosion—if one area is thinner than another, that
could be a sign that the area has been corroded, and may require maintenance.
In addition to metal, an ultrasonic thickness test can be used to test plastics,
composites, and ceramics. It can also be used to test concrete but the findings
may not be as reliable.
Here are some assets commonly tested using ultrasonic thickness measurement:
Flare stacks
Wind turbines
Large storage tanks
 UT Equipment
Inspectors use several different types of ultrasonic testing (ut)
equipment.
Some of this equipment is highly specialized, and may require the use
of a technician trained in its use.
Some companies hire third parties who are experts in the use of
certain types of UT equipment and ultrasonic testing techniques, either
to train internal team members on its use or to use the instruments
and analyze their findings themselves.
That being said, even the most sophisticated UT equipment is usually
easy to care and use, and highly reliable.
 UT Equipment
Here are the most common types of ultrasonic equipment that
inspectors use:
Ultrasonic transducers and probes. Transducers are used in several
types of ultrasonic thickness measurement, including weld testing and
gauging thickness.
Types include phased array, immersion, and contact transducers.
Flaw detectors. Field-tested portable ultrasonic testing solutions for
fast, accurate inspections for internal product integrity, searching for
defects, cracks, and other discontinuities.
Flaw detectors are portable, powerful, and sensitive, allowing
inspectors to penetrate materials at a considerable depth.
 UT Equipment
Thickness gauges. Ultrasonic thickness gauges are commonly used to
inspect the thickness of various metals, including brass, steel, nickel,
and lead, among others.
Thickness gauges can be especially helpful for identifying corrosion.
Automated UT systems. Automated ultrasonic thickness systems are
systems that can be put in place and collect ultrasonic readings without
an inspector physically present, allowing data collection that can be
useful for the longevity of an asset even when someone isn’t there.
 These systems are commonly used to monitor pipes in the Oil and Gas
industry.
 UT Drone Inspection
Drones are typically used for visual inspections—that is, to collect
visual data reflecting the condition of an asset—but they’re also
starting to be used for sonic testing.
 UT Drone Inspection
Two of the biggest benefits of doing a drone thickness inspection
instead of doing a UT inspection in person are safety and savings:
For safety, a UT drone inspection can be used in scenarios that would
require a person to work at height using a lift, catwalk, or scaffolding.
Using the drone to collect UT data removes the need for a person to
endanger themselves with this kind of work.
For savings, a UT drone inspection can potentially collect UT data more
quickly than a person, and also helps avoid the need for scaffolding,
which can be costly and time-consuming to put in place and take down,
driving up costs through prolonged downtimes.
Ultrasonic testing by drone is still in its infancy. Right now, one of the
only drone companies that offers it is Appelix.
 UT Drone Inspection
To perform a drone thickness
inspection, the drone must first
apply a couplant to the surface
that will be tested in order to
optimize it for propagating sound
waves.
As drone technology progresses,
we are sure to see more
inspection drones offering
ultrasonic testing.
 Radiographic Testing
Industrial radiography involves exposing a test object to penetrating
radiation so that the radiation passes through the object being
inspected and a recording medium placed against the opposite side of
that object.
For thinner or less dense materials such as aluminum, electrically
generated x-radiation (X-rays) are commonly used, and for thicker or
denser materials, gamma radiation is generally used.
Gamma radiation is given off by decaying radioactive materials, with
the two most commonly used sources of gamma radiation being
Iridium-192 (Ir-192) and Cobalt-60 (Co-60).
IR-192 is generally used for steel up to 2-1/2 to 3 inches, depending on
the Curie strength of the source, and Co-60 is usually used for thicker
materials due to its greater penetrating ability.
 Radiographic Testing
The recording media can be
industrial x-ray film or one of several
types of digital radiation detectors.
With both, the radiation passing
through the test object exposes the
media, causing an end effect of
having darker areas where more
radiation has passed through the
part and lighter areas where less
radiation has penetrated.
If there is a void or defect in the part,
more radiation passes through,
causing a darker image on the film or
detector, as shown in Figure.
 RT Techniques
Computed Radiography
Computed radiography (CR) is a transitional technology between film
and direct digital radiography.
This technique uses a reusable, flexible, photo-stimulated phosphor
(PSP) plate which is loaded into a cassette and is exposed in a manner
similar to traditional film radiography.
The cassette is then placed in a laser reader where it is scanned and
translated into a digital image, which take from one to five minutes.
The image can then be uploaded to a computer or other electronic
media for interpretation and storage.
RT Techniques
 RT Techniques
Computed Tomography
Computed tomography (CT) uses a computer to reconstruct an image
of a cross sectional plane of an object as opposed to a conventional
radiograph, as shown in previous figure.
The CT image is developed from multiple views taken at different
viewing angles that are reconstructed using a computer.
With traditional radiography, the position of internal discontinuities
cannot be accurately determined without making exposures from
several angles to locate the item by triangulation.
With computed tomography, the computer triangulates using every
point in the plane as viewed from many different directions.
 Digital Radiography
Digital radiography (DR) digitizes the radiation that passes through an
object directly into an image that can be displayed on a computer
monitor.
These images are available for viewing and analysis in seconds
compared to the time needed to scan in computed radiography
images.
 The increased processing speed is a result of the unique construction
of the pixels; an arrangement that also allows a superior resolution
than is found in computed radiography and most film applications.
 Film Radiography
Film radiography uses a film made up of a thin transparent plastic coated
with a fine layer of silver bromide on one or both sides of the plastic.
When exposed to radiation these crystals undergo a reaction that allows
them, when developed, to convert to black metallic silver.
That silver is then "fixed" to the plastic during the developing process,
and when dried, becomes a finished radiographic film.
To be a usable film, the area of interest (weld area, etc.) on the film must
be within a certain density (darkness) range and must show enough
contrast and sensitivity so that discontinuities of interest can be seen.
These items are a function of the strength of the radiation, the distance
of the source from the film and the thickness of the part being inspected.

If any of these parameters are not met, another exposure ("shot") must
be made for that area of the part.
 Electromagnetic testing
Electromagnetic testing is a general test category that includes Eddy
Current testing, Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) and
Remote Field testing.
While magnetic particle testing is also an electromagnetic test, due to
its widespread use it is considered a stand-alone test method rather as
than an electromagnetic testing technique.
All of these techniques use the induction of an electric current or
magnetic field into a conductive part, then the resulting effects are
recorded and evaluated.
 Electromagnetic testing
ET Techniques Magnetic

current
Field

Eddy Current Testing

Eddy Current Testing uses the fact that when a an
alternating current coil induces an electromagnetic
field into a conductive test piece, a small current is
created around the magnetic flux field, much like a
magnetic field is generated around an electric
current. Eddy currents

The flow pattern of this secondary current, called

an "eddy" current, will be affected when it
encounters a discontinuity in the test piece, and
the change in the eddy current density can be Pr
od
uc

detected and used to characterize the

tT
rav
el
Encircling

discontinuity causing that change. Coil

Eddy
Currents

A simplified schematic of eddy currents generated

by an alternating current coil ("probe") is shown in
Figure 14-a.
By varying the type of coil, this test method Magnetic

current
Field

can be applied to flat surfaces or tubular

products.
This technique works best on smooth surfaces
and has limited penetration, usually less than
¼".
Eddy currents

Encircling coils (Figure 14-b) are used to test

tubular and bar-shaped products.
The tube or bar can be fed through the coil at
a relatively high speed, allowing the full cross- Pr
od
uc
section of the test object to be interrogated. Encircling
tT
rav
el

Coil

However, due to the direction of the flux Eddy

Currents

lines, circumferentially oriented

discontinuities may not be detected with this
application.
Alternating Current Field Measurement
Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) uses a specialized
probe that introduces an alternating current into the surface of the test
piece, creating a magnetic field.
 In parts with no discontinuities this field will be uniform, but if there is
a discontinuity open to the surface, the magnetic field will flow around
and under the discontinuity, causing a disruption of the field that can
be detected by sensors within the probe.
The resulting feedback can then be fed to software that can determine
the length and depth of the discontinuity.
ACFM provides better results on rough surfaces than Eddy Current and
can be used through many surface coatings.
Remote Field Testing
Remote Field Testing (RFT) is most commonly used to inspect
ferromagnetic tubing due to the presence of a strong skin effect found
in such tubes.
Compared to standard eddy current techniques, remote field testing
provides better results throughout the thickness of the tube, having
approximately equal sensitivity at both the ID and OD surfaces of the
tube.
For non-ferromagnetic tubes, eddy current tends to provide more
sensitivity.
 Laser Testing
Laser Testing includes three techniques, Holography, Shearography and
Profilometry.
As the method name implies, all three techniques use lasers to
perform the inspections.
LM Techniques
Holographic Testing
Holographic Testing uses a laser to detect changes to the surface of a
part as it deforms under induced stress which can be applied as
mechanical stress, heat, pressure, or vibrational energy.
The laser beam scans across the surface of the part and reflects back
to sensors that record the differences in the surface created by that
stress.
The resulting image will be a topographical map-like presentation that
can reveal surface deformations in the order of 0.05 to 0.005 microns
without damage to the part.
 Laser Testing
By comparing the test results with an undamaged reference sample,
holographic testing can be used to locate and evaluate cracks,
delaminations, disbonds, voids and residual stresses.
Laser Profilometry
Laser Profilometry uses a high-speed rotating laser light source,
miniature optics and a computer with high-speed digital signal
processing software.
The ID surface of a tube is scanned in two dimensions and the
reflected light is passed through a lens that focuses that light onto a
photo-detector, generating a signal that is proportional to the spot's
position in its image plane.
This technique can be used to detect corrosion, pitting, erosion and
cracks in pipes and tubes.
 Laser Testing
Laser Shearography
Laser Shearography applies laser light to the surface of the part being
tested with the part at rest (non-stressed) and the resulting image is
picked up by a charge-coupled device (CCD) and stored on a computer.
The surface is then stressed and a new image is generated, recorded
and stored.
The computer then superimposes the two patterns and if defects such
as voids or disbonds are present, the defect can be revealed by the
patterns developed.
Discontinuities as small as a few micrometers in size can be detected in
this manner.
 Thermal/Infrared Testing
Thermal/Infrared Testing, or infrared thermography, is used to
measure or map surface temperatures based on the infrared radiation
given off by an object as heat flows through, to or from that object.
The majority of infrared radiation is longer in wavelength than visible
light but can be detected using thermal imaging devices, commonly
called "infrared cameras."
For accurate IR testing, the part(s) being investigated should be in
direct line of sight with the camera, i.e., should not be done with panel
covers closed as the covers will diffuse the heat and can result in false
readings.
Used properly, thermal imaging can be used to detect corrosion
damage, delaminations, disbonds, voids, inclusions as well as many
other detrimental conditions.
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